Прототипное программирование: наследование через объекты

Style of object oriented programming in which inheritance is based on reusing objects

Prototype based programming is a style of object oriented programming in which behaviour reuse (known as inheritance) is performed via a process of reusing existing objects that serve as prototypes. This model can also be known as prototypal, prototype oriented, classless, or instance based programming. Prototype based programming uses the process generalized objects, which can then be cloned and extended. Using fruit as an example, a "fruit" object would represent the properties and functionality of fruit in general. A "banana" object would be cloned from the "fruit" object and general properties specific to bananas would be appended. Each individual "banana" object would be cloned from the generic "banana" object. Compare to the class based paradigm, where a "fruit" class would be extended by a "banana" class. The first prototype based programming languages were Director a. k. a. Ani (on top of MacLisp) (1976 1979), and contemporaneously and not independently, ThingLab (on top of Smalltalk) (1977 1981), respective PhD projects by Kenneth Michael Kahn at MIT and Alan Hamilton Borning at Stanford (but working with Alan Kay at Xerox PARC). Borning introduced the word "prototype" in his TOPLAS 1981 paper. The first prototype based programming language with more than one implementer or user was probably Yale T Scheme (1981 1984), though like Director and ThingLab initially, it just speaks of objects without classes. The language that made the name and notion of prototypes popular was Self (1985 1995), developed by David Ungar and Randall Smith to research topics in object oriented language design. Since the late 1990s, the classless paradigm has grown increasingly popular. Some current prototype oriented languages are JavaScript (and other ECMAScript implementations such as JScript and Flash's ActionScript 1.0), Lua, Cecil, NewtonScript, Io, Ioke, MOO, REBOL and AHK. Since the 2010s, a new generation of languages with pure functional prototypes has appeared, that reduce OOP to its very core: Jsonnet is a dynamic lazy pure functional language with a builtin prototype object system using mixin inheritance; Nix is a dynamic lazy pure functional language that builds an equivalent object system (Nix "extensions") in literally two short function definitions (plus many other convenience functions). Both languages are used to define large distributed software configurations (Jsonnet being directly inspired by GCL, the Google Configuration Language, with which Google defines all its deployments, and has similar semantics though with dynamic binding of variables). Since then, other languages like Gerbil Scheme have implemented pure functional lazy prototype systems based on similar principles.

In prototype based languages that use delegation, the language runtime is capable of dispatching the correct method or finding the right piece of data simply by following a series of delegation pointers (from object to its prototype) until a match is found. All that is required to establish this behavior sharing between objects is the delegation pointer. Unlike the relationship between class and instance in class based object oriented languages, the relationship between the prototype and its offshoots does not require that the child object have a memory or structural similarity to the prototype beyond this link. As such, the child object can continue to be modified and amended over time without rearranging the structure of its associated prototype as in class based systems. It is also important to note that not only data, but also methods can be added or changed. For this reason, some prototype based languages refer to both data and methods as "slots" or "members".

In concatenative prototyping the approach implemented by the Kevo programming language there are no visible pointers or links to the original prototype from which an object is cloned. The prototype (parent) object is copied rather than linked to and there is no delegation. As a result, changes to the prototype will not be reflected in cloned objects. Incidentally, the Cosmos programming language achieves the same through the use of persistent data structures. The main conceptual difference under this arrangement is that changes made to a prototype object are not automatically propagated to clones. This may be seen as an advantage or disadvantage. (However, Kevo does provide additional primitives for publishing changes across sets of objects based on their similarity — so called family resemblances or clone family mechanism Conversely, systems with delegation based prototyping can use caching to speed up data lookup.

Advocates of class based object models who criticize prototype based systems often have concerns similar to the concerns that proponents of static type systems for programming languages have of dynamic type systems (see datatype). Usually, such concerns involve correctness, safety, predictability, efficiency and programmer unfamiliarity. On the first three points, classes are often seen as analogous to types (in most statically typed object oriented languages they serve that role) and are proposed to provide contractual guarantees to their instances, and to users of their instances, that they will behave in some given fashion. Regarding efficiency, declaring classes simplifies many compiler optimizations that allow developing efficient method and instance variable lookup. For the Self language, much development time was spent on developing, compiling, and interpreting techniques to improve the performance of prototype based systems versus class based systems. A common criticism made against prototype based languages is that the community of software developers is unfamiliar with them, despite the popularity and market permeation of JavaScript. However, knowledge about prototype based systems is increasing with the proliferation of JavaScript frameworks and the complex use of JavaScript as the World Wide Web (Web) matures. ECMAScript 6 introduced classes as syntactic sugar over JavaScript's existing prototype based inheritance, providing an alternative way to create objects and manage inheritance.