Гелиос: Солнечные зонды NASA и DLR вблизи Солнца.

Pair of sun orbiting probes launched in 1974 76 by the American and West German space agencies
the solar orbiting spacecraft

The Helios project was a joint venture of West Germany's space agency DLR (70 percent share) and NASA (30 percent share). As built by the main contractor, Messerschmitt Bölkow Blohm, they were the first space probes built outside the United States and the Soviet Union to leave Earth orbit.

The two Helios probes look similar. Helios A has a mass of , and Helios B has a mass of Their scientific payloads have a mass of on Helios A and on Helios B. The central bodies are sixteen sided prisms in diameter and high. Most of the equipment and instrumentation is mounted in this central body. The exceptions are the masts and antennae used during experiments and small telescopes that measure the zodiacal light and emerge from the central body. Two conical solar panels extend above and below the central body, giving the assembly the appearance of a diabolo or spool of thread. At launch, each probe was tall with a maximum diameter of Once in orbit, the telecommunications antennae unfolded on top of the probes and increased the heights to Also deployed were two rigid booms carrying sensors and magnetometers, attached on both sides of the central bodies, and two flexible antennae used for the detection of radio waves, which extended perpendicular to the axes of the spacecraft for a design length of each. The spacecraft spin around their axes, which are perpendicular to the ecliptic, at 60rpm.

Electrical power is provided by solar cells attached to the two truncated cones. To keep the solar panels at a temperature below when in proximity to the Sun, the solar cells are interspersed with mirrors, covering 50% of the surface and reflecting part of the incident sunlight while dissipating the excess heat. The power supplied by the solar panels is a minimum of 240watts when the probe is at aphelion. Its voltage is regulated to 28volts DC. Silver zinc batteries were used only during launch.

The biggest technical challenge was to avoid heating during orbit while close to the Sun. At from the Sun, approximate heat flow is 11 solar constants, (11 times the amount of solar irradiance received while in Earth orbit), or 22.4 kW per exposed square meter. At that distance, the probe could reach
The solar cells, and the central compartment of instruments had to be maintained at much lower temperatures. The solar cells could not exceed , while the central compartment had to be maintained between These restrictions required the rejection of 96 percent of the energy received from the Sun. The conical shape of the solar panels was decided on to reduce heating. Tilting the solar panels with respect to sunlight arriving perpendicularly to the axis of the probe, reflects a greater proportion of the solar radiation. "Second surface mirrors" specially developed by NASA cover the entire central body and 50 percent of the solar generators. These are made of fused quartz, with a silver film on the inner face, which is itself covered with a dielectric material. For additional protection, multi layer insulationconsisting of 18 layers of Mylar or Kapton (depending on location), held apart from each other by small plastic pins intended to prevent the formation of thermal bridgeswas used to partially cover the core compartment. In addition to these passive devices, the probes used an active system of movable louvers arranged in a shutter like pattern along the bottom and top side of the compartment. The opening thereof is controlled separately by a bimetal spring whose length varies with temperature and causes the opening or closing of the shutter. Resistors were also used to help maintain a temperature sufficient for certain equipment.

The telecommunication system uses a radio transceiver, whose power could be adjusted to between 0.5 and 20 watts. Three antennas are mounted on top of each probe. A high gain antenna (23 dB) of 11° beam width, a medium gain antenna (3 dB for transmission and 6.3 dB for reception) emits a signal in all directions of the ecliptic plane at the height of 15°, and a low gain dipole antenna (0.3 dB transmission and 0.8 dB for reception). To be directed continuously toward Earth, the high gain antenna is rotated by a motor at a speed that counterbalances the spin of the probe. Synchronizing the rotation speed is performed using data supplied by a Sun sensor. The maximum data rate obtained with the large antenna gain was 4096 bits per second upstream. The reception and transmission of signals were supported by the Deep Space Network antennas on Earth.

To maintain orientation during the mission, the spacecraft rotated continuously at 60 RPM around its main axis. The orientation control system manages the speed and orientation of the probe's shafts. To determine its orientation, Helios used a crude Sun sensor. Guidance corrections were performed using cold gas thrusters (7.7 kg nitrogen) with a boost of 1Newton. The axis of the probe was permanently maintained keeping it both perpendicular to the direction of the Sun and to the ecliptic plane.

The onboard controllers were capable of handling 256 commands. The mass memory could store 500 kb, (this was a very large memory for space probes of the time), and was mainly used when the probes were in superior conjunction relative to the Earth (i. e. the Sun comes between the Earth and the spacecraft). A conjunction could last up to 65 days.

Helios A and Helios B were launched on December 10, 1974, and January 15, 1976, respectively. Helios B flew closer to the Sun than Helios A, achieving perihelion on April17, 1976, at a record distance of , closer than the orbit of Mercury. Helios B was sent into orbit 13 months after the launch of Helios A. Helios B performed the closest flyby of the Sun of any spacecraft until Parker Solar Probe in 2018, from the Sun. and two passive science investigations using the spacecraft telecommuniction system and the spacecraft orbit.

The flux gate magnetometer measures the field strength and direction of low frequency magnetic fields in the Sun's environment. It was developed by the University of Braunschweig, Germany. It measures three vector components of solar wind and its magnetic field with high precision. The intensity is measured with an accuracy to within 0.4nT when below 102.4nT, and within 1.2nT at intensities below 409.6nT. Two sample rates are available: search every two seconds or eight readings per second.

Measures variations of the field strength and direction of low frequency magnetic fields in the Sol environment. Developed by the Goddard Space Flight Center of NASA; measures variations of the three vector components of solar wind and its magnetic field with an accuracy to within 0.1nT at about 25nT, within 0.3nT at about 75nT, and within 0.9nT at an intensity of 225nT.

The search coil magnetometer complements the flux gate magnetometer by measuring the magnetic fields between 0 and 3 kHz. Also developed by the University of Braunschweig, it detects fluctuations in the magnetic field in the 5Hz to 3000Hz range. The spectral resolution is performed on the probe's rotation axis.

The Plasma Wave Investigation developed by the University of Iowa uses two 15 m antennas forming an elecric dipole for the study of electrostatic and electromagnetic waves in the solar wind plasma in frequencies between 10 Hz and 3 MHz.

The Cosmic Radiation Investigation developed by the University of Kiel sought to determine the intensity, direction, and energy of the protons and heavy constituent particles in radiation to determine the distribution of cosmic rays. The three detectors (semiconductor detector, scintillation counter, and Cherenkov detector) were encapsulated in an anti coincidence detector.

The Cosmic Ray Instrument developed at the Goddard Space Flight Center measures the characteristics of protons with energies between 0.1 and 800MeV and electrons with energies between 0.05 and 5MeV. It uses three telescopes, which cover the ecliptic plane. A proportional counter studies the X rays from the Sun.

Developed by the Max Planck Institute for Aeronomy, the low energy electron and proton spectrometer uses spectrometers to measure particle characteristics (protons) with energies between 20 keV and 2 MeV and electrons and positrons with an energy between 80 keV and 1 MeV.

The Zodiacal light instrument includes three photometers developed by the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy to measure the intensity and polarization of the zodiac light in white light and in the 550nm and 400 nm wavelength bands, using three telescopes whose optical axes form angles of 15, 30, and 90° to the ecliptic. From these observations, information is obtained about the spatial distribution of interplanetary dust and the size and nature of the dust particles.

The Micrometeoroid analyzer developed by the Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics is capable of detecting cosmic dust particles if their mass is greater than 10−15g. It can determine the mass and energy of a micro meteorite greater than 10−14g. These measurements are made by exploiting the fact that micrometeorites vaporize and ionize when they hit a target. The instrument separates the ions and electrons in the plasma generated by the impacts, and measures the mass and energy of the incident particle. A low resolution mass spectrometer determines the composition of impacting cosmic dust particles with a mass greater than 10−13g.

The Celestial Mechanic Experiment developed by the University of Hamburg uses the Helios orbit specifics to clarify astronomical measurements: flattening of the Sun; verification of predicted general relativity effects; determining the mass of the planet Mercury; the Earth–Moon mass ratio; and the integrated electron density between the Helios spacecraft and the data receivig station on Earth.

The Coronal Sounding Experiment developed by the University of Bonn measures the rotation (Faraday effect) of the linear polarized radio beam from the spacecraft when it passes during opposition through the corona of the Sun. This rotation is a measure of the density of electrons and the intensity of the magnetic field in the traversed region.

Helios A was launched on December 10, 1974, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 41 in Cape Canaveral, Florida. This was the first operational flight of the Titan IIIE rocket. The rocket's test flight had failed when the engine on the upper Centaur stage did not light, but the launch of Helios A was uneventful. The probe was placed in a heliocentric orbit of 192 days with a perihelion of from the Sun. Several problems affected operations. One of the two antennas did not deploy correctly, reducing the sensitivity of the radio plasma apparatus to low frequency waves. When the high gain antenna was connected, the mission team realized that their emissions interfered with the analyzer particles and the radio receiver. To reduce the interference, communications were carried out using reduced power, but this required using the large diameter terrestrial receivers already in place thanks to other space missions in progress. During the first perihelion in late February 1975, the spacecraft came closer to the Sun than any previous spacecraft. The temperature of some components reached more than , while the solar panels reached , without affecting probe operations. During the second pass on September 21, however, temperatures reached , which affected the operation of certain instruments.

Before Helios B was launched, some modifications were made to the spacecraft based on lessons learned from the operations of Helios A. The small engines used for attitude control were improved. Changes were made to the implementation mechanism of the flexible antenna and high gain antenna emissions. The X ray detectors were improved so that they could detect gamma ray bursts, allowing them to be used in conjunction with Earth orbiting satellites to triangulate the location of the bursts. As temperatures on Helios A were always greater than below the design maximum at perihelion, it was decided that Helios B would orbit even closer to the Sun, and the thermal insulation was enhanced to allow the satellite to resist 15 percent higher temperatures. Tight schedule constraints pressed on the Helios B launch in early 1976. Facilities damaged during the launch of the Viking 2 spacecraft in September 1975 had to be repaired, while the Viking landing on Mars in summer 1976 made the Deep Space Network antennas that Helios B needed to conduct its science while at perihelion unavailable. Helios B was launched on January 10, 1976, using a Titan IIIE rocket. The probe was placed in an orbit with a 187 day period and a perihelion of The orientation of Helios B with respect to the ecliptic was reversed 180 degrees compared to Helios A so that the micrometeorite detectors could have 360 degree coverage. On April 17, 1976, Helios B made its closest pass of the Sun at a record heliocentric speed of The maximum recorded temperature was higher than measured by Helios A.