История тепловых двигателей: от античности до современности.

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This timeline of heat engine technology describes how heat engines have been known since antiquity but have been made into increasingly useful devices since the 17th century as a better understanding of the processes involved was gained. A heat engine is any system that converts heat to mechanical energy, which can then be used to do mechanical work. They continue to be developed today. In engineering and thermodynamics, a heat engine performs the conversion of heat energy to mechanical work by exploiting the temperature gradient between a hot "source" and a cold "sink". Heat is transferred to the sink from the source, and in this process some of the heat is converted into work. A heat pump is a heat engine run in reverse. Work is used to create a heat differential. The timeline includes devices classed as both engines and pumps, as well as identifying significant leaps in human understanding.

Prehistory – The fire piston used by tribes in southeast Asia and the Pacific islands to kindle fire. c. 450 BC – Archytas of Tarentum used a jet of steam to propel a toy wooden bird suspended on wire. c. 50 AD – Hero of Alexandria's Engine, also known as Aeolipile. Demonstrates rotary motion produced by the reaction from jets of steam. c. 10th century – China develops the earliest fire lances which were spear like weapons combining a bamboo tube containing gunpowder and shrapnel like projectiles tied to a spear. c 12th century – China, the earliest depiction of a gun showing a metal body and a tight fitting projectile which maximises the conversion of the hot gases to forward motion. 1125 – Gerbert, a professor in the schools at Rheims designed and built an organ blown by air escaping from a vessel in which it was compressed by heated water. 1232 – First recorded use of a rocket. In a battle between the Chinese and the Mongols. ( see Timeline of rocket and missile technology for a view of rocket development through time.) c. 1500 – Leonardo da Vinci builds the Architonnerre, a steam powered cannon. 1543 – Blasco de Garay, a Spanish naval officer demonstrates a boat propelled without oars or sail that utilised the reaction from a jet issued from a large boiling kettle of water.

1629 – Giovanni Branca demonstrates a steam turbine. 1662 – Robert Boyle publishes Boyle's Law which defines the relationship between volume and pressure in a gas at a constant temperature. 1665 – Edward Somerset, the Second Marquess of Worcester builds a working steam fountain. 1680 – Christiaan Huygens publishes a design for a piston engine powered by gunpowder but it is never built. 1690 – Denis Papin – produces design for the first piston steam engine. 1698 – Thomas Savery builds a pistonless steam powered water pump for pumping water out of mines.

1707 – Denis Papin – produces design for his second piston steam engine in conjunction with Gottfried Leibniz. 1712 – Thomas Newcomen builds the first commercially successful piston and cylinder steam powered water pump for pumping water out of mines. It is known as an atmospheric engine and operates by condensing steam in a cylinder to produce a vacuum which moves the piston by atmospheric pressure. 1748 – William Cullen demonstrates the first artificial refrigeration in a public lecture at the University of Glasgow in Scotland. 1759 – John Harrison uses a bimetallic strip in his third marine chronometer (H3) to compensate for temperature induced changes in the balance spring. This converts thermal expansion and contraction in two dissimilar solids to mechanical work. 1769 – James Watt patents his first improved atmospheric steam engine, see Watt steam engine with a separate condenser outside the cylinder, doubling the efficiency of earlier engines. 1787 – Jacques Charles formulates Charles's law which describes the relationship between a gas's volume and temperature. He does not publish this however and it is not recognised until Joseph Louis Gay Lussac develops and references it in 1802. 1791 – John Barber patents the idea of a gas turbine. 1799 – Richard Trevithick builds the first high pressure steam engine. This used the force from pressurized steam to move the piston.

2011 – Shoichi Toyabe and others demonstrate a working Szilard engine using a phase contrast microscope equipped with a high speed camera connected to a computer. 2011 – Michigan State University builds the first wave disk engine. An internal combustion engine which does away with pistons, crankshafts and valves, and replaces them with a disc shaped shock wave generator. 2019 – A working quantum heat engine based on a spin 1/2 system and nuclear magnetic resonance techniques is demonstrated by Roberto Serra and others at the Universities of Waterloo, and the Universidade Federal do ABC and Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas. 2020 – A nano scale device that can act either as a heat engine or as a refrigerator by utilising quantum effects, is demonstrated by engineers at RIKEN Advanced Device Laboratory.