Жүгіру: Тарихы, пайдасы және адам эволюциясы

Method of terrestrial locomotion allowing rapid movement on foot

Running is a method of terrestrial locomotion by which humans and other animals move rapidly on foot. Running is a gait with an aerial phase in which all feet are above the ground (though there are exceptions). This is in contrast to walking, where one foot is always in contact with the ground, the legs are kept mostly straight, and the center of gravity vaults over the stance leg or legs in an inverted pendulum fashion. A feature of a running body from the viewpoint of spring mass mechanics is that changes in kinetic and potential energy within a stride co occur, with energy storage accomplished by springy tendons and passive muscle elasticity. The term "running" can refer to a variety of speeds ranging from jogging to sprinting. Running in humans is associated with improved health and life expectancy. It is hypothesized that the ancestors of humankind developed the ability to run for long distances about 2.6 million years ago, probably to hunt animals. Competitive running grew out of religious festivals in various areas. Records of competitive racing date back to the Tailteann Games in Ireland between 632 BCE and 1171 BCE, while the first recorded Olympic Games took place in 776 BCE. Running has been described as the world's most accessible sport.

It is thought that human running evolved at least four and a half million years ago out of the ability of the ape like Australopithecus, an early ancestor of humans, to walk upright on two legs. Early humans most likely developed into endurance runners from the practice of persistence hunting of animals, the activity of following and chasing until a prey is too exhausted to flee, succumbing to "chase myopathy" (Sears 2001), and that human features such as the nuchal ligament, abundant sweat glands, the Achilles tendons, big knee joints and muscular glutei maximi, were changes caused by this type of activity (Bramble & Lieberman 2004, et al.). The theory as first proposed used comparative physiological evidence and the natural habits of animals when running, indicating the likelihood of this activity as a successful hunting method. Further evidence from observation of modern day hunting practices also indicated this likelihood (Carrier et al. 1984). According to Sears (p. 12) scientific investigation (Walker & Leakey 1993) of the Nariokotome skeleton provided further evidence for the Carrier theory. Competitive running grew out of religious festivals in various areas such as Greece, Egypt, Asia, and the East African Rift in Africa. The Tailteann Games, an Irish sporting festival in honor of the goddess Tailtiu, dates back to 1829 BCE and is one of the earliest records of competitive running. The origins of the Olympics and Marathon running are shrouded by myth and legend, though the first recorded games took place in 776 BCE. Running in Ancient Greece can be traced back to these games of 776 BCE. I suspect that the sun, moon, earth, stars, and heaven, which are still the gods of many barbarians, were the only gods known to the aboriginal Hellenes. Seeing that they were always moving and running, from their running nature they were called gods or runners (Thus, Theontas) |Socrates in Plato – Cratylus

Running gait can be divided into two phases regarding the lower extremity: stance and swing. These can be further divided into absorption, propulsion, initial swing, and terminal swing. Due to the continuous nature of running gait, no certain point is assumed to be the beginning. However, for simplicity, it will be assumed that absorption and footstrike mark the beginning of the running cycle in a body already in motion.

Footstrike occurs when a plantar portion of the foot makes initial contact with the ground. Common footstrike types include forefoot, midfoot, and heel strike types. These are characterized by initial contact of the ball of the foot, ball and heel of the foot simultaneously and heel of the foot respectively. During this time, the hip joint is undergoing extension from being in maximal flexion from the previous swing phase. For proper force absorption, the knee joint should be flexed upon the footstrike, and the ankle should be slightly in front of the body. Footstrike begins the absorption phase as forces from initial contact are attenuated throughout the lower extremity. Absorption of forces continues as the body moves from footstrike to midstance due to vertical propulsion from the toe off during a previous gait cycle.

Midstance is when the lower extremity limb of focus is in knee flexion directly underneath the trunk, pelvis, and hips. At this point, propulsion begins to occur as the hips undergo hip extension, the knee joint undergoes extension, and the ankle undergoes plantar flexion. Propulsion continues until the leg is extended behind the body and toe off occurs. This involves a maximal hip extension, knee extension, and plantar flexion for the subject, resulting in the body being pushed forward from this motion, and the ankle/foot leaves the ground as the initial swing begins.

Recent research, especially in the footstrike debate, has primarily focused on identifying and preventing injuries during the absorption phases of running. The propulsion phase, which occurs from midstance to toe off, is crucial for understanding how the body moves forward. In a full stride length model, elements of both the terminal swing and footstrike contribute to propulsion. The setup for propulsion begins at the end of the terminal swing when the hip joint flexes, allowing the hip extensors to generate force as they accelerate through the maximal range of motion. As the hip extensors transition from inhibitory to primary muscle movers, the lower extremity moves back towards the ground, aided by the stretch reflex and gravity. On the other hand, a mid/forefoot strike helps in shock absorption, supporting plantar flexion from midstance to toe off. Actual propulsion begins as the lower extremity enters midstance. The ankle joint is in dorsiflexion at this point, either elastically loaded from a mid/forefoot strike or preparing for stand alone concentric plantar flexion. The final propulsive movements during toe off involve all three joints: ankle, knee, and hip. The trunk also rotates in conjunction with arm swing. It mainly serves as a balance point from which the limbs are anchored. Thus trunk motion should remain mostly stable with little motion except for slight rotation, as excessive movement would contribute to transverse motion and wasted energy.

Recent research into various forms of running has focused on the differences in the potential injury risks and shock absorption capabilities between heel and mid/forefoot footstrikes. It has been shown that heel striking is generally associated with higher rates of injury and impact due to inefficient shock absorption and inefficient biomechanical compensations for these forces. This causes the body to use abnormal compensatory motions in an attempt to avoid serious bone injuries. These compensations include internal rotation of the tibia, knee, and hip joints. Excessive compensation over time has been linked to a higher risk of injuries in those joints and the muscles involved in those motions. Thus a mid/forefoot strike may aid in propulsion. However, even among elite athletes, there are variations in self selected footstrike types. This is especially true in longer distance events, where there is a prevalence of heel strikers. There does tend however to be a greater percentage of mid/forefoot striking runners in the elite fields, particularly in the faster racers and the winning individuals or groups. An increase in running speeds causes increased ground reaction forces, and elite distance runners must compensate for this to maintain their pace over long distances. These forces are attenuated through increased stride length via increased hip flexion and extension through decreased ground contact time and more energy being used in propulsion. With increased propulsion in the horizontal plane, less impact occurs from the decreased force in the vertical plane. Increased hip flexion allows for increased use of the hip extensors through midstance and toe off, allowing for more force production. The increase in velocity likely comes from the increased range of motion in hip flexion and extension, allowing for greater acceleration and speed. The hip extensors and extension have been linked to more powerful knee extension during toe off, contributing to propulsion. Elite runners tend to exhibit some degree of knee flexion at footstrike and midstance, which first serves to eccentrically absorb impact forces in the quadriceps muscle group. Secondly it allows for the knee joint to contract concentrically and provides significant aid in propulsion during toe off as the quadriceps group is capable of producing large amounts of force.

Exercise physiologists have found that the stride rates are extremely consistent across professional runners, between 185 and 200 steps per minute. The main difference between long and short distance runners is the length of stride rather than the rate of stride. During running, the speed at which the runner moves may be calculated by multiplying the cadence (steps per minute) by the stride length. Running is often measured in terms of pace, expressed in units of minutes per mile or minutes per kilometer (the inverse of speed, in mph or km/h). Some coaches advocate training at a combination of specific paces related to one's fitness to stimulate various physiological improvements. Different types of stride are necessary for different types of running. When sprinting, runners stay on their toes bringing their legs up, using shorter and faster strides. Long distance runners tend to have more relaxed strides that vary.

While there exists the potential for injury while running (just as there is in any sport), there are many benefits. Some of these benefits include potential weight loss, improved cardiovascular and respiratory health (reducing the risk of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases), improved cardiovascular fitness, reduced total blood cholesterol, strengthening of bones (and potentially increased bone density), possible strengthening of the immune system and an improved self esteem and emotional state. Running, like all forms of regular exercise, can effectively slow or reverse the effects of aging. Even people who have already experienced a heart attack are 20% less likely to develop serious heart problems if more engaged in running or any type of aerobic activity. Although an optimal amount of vigorous aerobic exercise such as running might bring benefits related to lower cardiovascular disease and life extension, an excessive dose (e. g., marathons) might have an opposite effect associated with cardiotoxicity.

Running can assist people in losing weight, staying in shape and improving body composition. Research suggests that the person of average weight will burn approximately 100 calories per mile run. Running increases one's metabolism, even after running; one will continue to burn an increased level of calories for a short time after the run. Different speeds and distances are appropriate for different individual health and fitness levels. For new runners, it takes time to get into shape. The key is consistency and a slow increase in speed and distance.

Running can also have psychological benefits, as many participants in the sport report feeling an elated, euphoric state, often referred to as a "runner's high". Running is frequently recommended as therapy for people with clinical depression and people coping with addiction. A possible benefit may be the enjoyment of nature and scenery, which also improves psychological well being (see Ecopsychology § Practical benefits). In animal models, running has been shown to increase the number of newly created neurons within the brain. This finding could have significant implications in aging as well as learning and memory. A recent study published in Cell Metabolism has also linked running with improved memory and learning skills. Running is an effective way to reduce stress, anxiety, depression, and inflammation. It helps people who struggle with seasonal affective disorder by running outside when it is sunny and warm. Running can improve mental alertness and sleep. Both research and clinical experience have shown that exercise can be a treatment for serious depression and anxiety even some physicians prescribe exercise to most of their patients. Running can have a longer lasting effect than anti depressants. The non threatening environment offered by running generates a sense of achievement and belonging which helps with mental illness.

Many injuries are associated with running because of its high impact nature. Change in running volume may lead to development of patellofemoral pain syndrome, iliotibial band syndrome, patellar tendinopathy, plica syndrome, and medial tibial stress syndrome. Change in running pace may cause Achilles Tendinitis, gastrocnemius injuries, and plantar fasciitis. Repetitive stress on the same tissues without enough time for recovery or running with improper form can lead to many of the above. Runners generally attempt to minimize these injuries by warming up before exercise, but this remains controversial and a majority of professionals advocate the wearing of appropriate shoes as the best method for avoiding injury. However, a study in 2013 concluded that wearing neutral shoes is not associated with increased injuries.

Another common, running related injury is chafing, caused by repetitive rubbing of one piece of skin against another, or against an article of clothing. One common location for chafe to occur is the runner's upper thighs. The skin feels coarse and develops a rash like look. A variety of deodorants and special anti chafing creams are available to treat such problems. Chafe is also likely to occur on the nipple. There are a variety of home remedies that runners use to deal with chafing while running such as band aids and using grease to reduce friction. Prevention is key which is why form fitting clothes are important.

An iliotibial band is a muscle and tendon that is attached to the hip and runs the length of the thigh to attach to the upper part of the tibia, and the band is what helps the knee to bend. This is an injury that is located at the knee and shows symptoms of swelling outside the knee. Iliotibial band syndrome is also known as "runner's knee" or "jogger's knee" because it can be caused by jogging or running. Once pain or swelling is noticeable it is important to put ice on it immediately and it is recommended to rest the knee for better healing. Most knee injuries can be treated by light activity and much rest for the knee. In more serious cases, arthroscopy is the most common to help repair ligaments but severe situations reconstructive surgery would be needed. A survey was taken in 2011 with knee injuries being 22.7% of the most common injuries.

A more known injury is medial tibial stress syndrome (MTSS) which is the accurate name for shin splints. This is caused during running when the muscle is being overused along the front of the lower leg with symptoms that affect 2 to 6 inches of the muscle. Shin Splints have sharp, splinter like pain, that is typically X rayed by doctors but is not necessary for shin splints to be diagnosed. To help prevent shin splints it is commonly known to stretch before and after a workout session, and also avoid heavy equipment especially during the first couple of workout sessions. Also to help prevent shin splints do not increase the intensity of a workout more than 10% a week. To treat shin splints it is important to rest with the least amount of impact on your legs and apply ice to the area. A survey showed that shin splints make up 12.7% of the most common injuries in running, with blisters being the top percentage at 30.9%. Today, road racing is a popular sport among non professional athletes, who included over 7.7 million people in America alone in 2002.

Footspeed, or sprint speed, is the maximum speed at which a human can run. It is affected by many factors, varies greatly throughout the population, and is important in athletics and many sports. The fastest human footspeed on record is , seen during a 100 meter sprint (average speed between the 60th and the 80th meter) by Usain Bolt.

Sprints are short running events in athletics and track and field. Races over short distances are among the oldest running competitions. The first 13 editions of the Ancient Olympic Games featured only one event – the stadion race, which was a race from one end of the stadium to the other. There are three sprinting events which are currently held at the Olympics and outdoor World Championships: the 100 metres, 200 metres, and 400 metres. These events have their roots in races of imperial measurements which were later altered to metric: the 100 m evolved from the 100 yard dash, the 200 m distances came from the furlong (or 1/8 of a mile), and the 400 m was the successor to the 440 yard dash or quarter mile race. Athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events, with the sole exception of the 400 m indoors. Races up to 100 m are largely focused upon acceleration to an athlete's maximum speed. Human physiology dictates that a runner's near top speed cannot be maintained for more than thirty seconds or so as lactic acid builds up, and leg muscles begin to be deprived of oxygen. Olympic champions Michael Johnson and Donovan Bailey went head to head over the distance in 1997, and Usain Bolt improved Mennea's record in 2009. The 880 yard run, or half mile, was the forebear to the 800 m distance and it has its roots in competitions in the United Kingdom in the 1830s. The 1500 m came about as a result of running three laps of a 500 m track, which was commonplace in continental Europe in the 1900s.

Examples of longer distance running events are long distance track races, half marathons, marathons, ultramarathons, and multiday races.