Активирленген көмір: қасиеттері мен қолданылуы

Form of carbon with an extremely high surface area

Activated carbon, also called activated charcoal, is a form of carbon commonly used to filter contaminants from water and air, among many other uses. It is processed (activated) to have small, low volume pores that greatly increase the surface area available for adsorption or chemical reactions that can be thought of as a microscopic "sponge" structure. (Adsorption, not to be confused with absorption, is a process where atoms or molecules adhere to a surface). Activation is analogous to making popcorn from dried corn kernels: popcorn is light, fluffy, and its kernels have a high surface area to volume ratio. Activated is sometimes replaced by active. Because it is so porous on a microscopic scale, one gram of activated carbon has a surface area of over , as determined by gas adsorption. For charcoal, the equivalent figure before activation is about 2–5 square metres. A useful activation level may be obtained solely from high surface area. Further chemical treatment often enhances adsorption properties. Activated carbon is usually derived from waste products such as coconut husks; waste from paper mills has been studied as a source. These bulk sources are converted into charcoal before being activated. When derived from coal, capacitive deionization, supercapacitive swing adsorption, solvent recovery, decaffeination, gold purification, metal extraction, water purification, medicine, sewage treatment, air filters in respirators, filters in compressed air, teeth whitening, production of hydrogen chloride, edible electronics, and many other applications.

One major industrial application involves use of activated carbon in metal finishing for purification of electroplating solutions. For example, it is the main purification technique for removing organic impurities from bright nickel plating solutions. A variety of organic chemicals are added to plating solutions for improving their deposit qualities and for enhancing properties like brightness, smoothness, ductility, etc. Due to passage of direct current and electrolytic reactions of anodic oxidation and cathodic reduction, organic additives generate unwanted breakdown products in solution. Their excessive build up can adversely affect plating quality and physical properties of deposited metal. Activated carbon treatment removes such impurities and restores plating performance to the desired level.

Activated carbon is used to treat poisonings and overdoses following oral ingestion. Tablets or capsules of activated carbon are used in many countries as an over the counter drug to treat diarrhea, indigestion, and flatulence. However, activated charcoal shows no effect on intestinal gas and diarrhea, is ordinarily medically ineffective if poisoning resulted from ingestion of corrosive agents, boric acid, or petroleum products, and is particularly ineffective against poisonings of strong acids or bases, cyanide, iron, lithium, arsenic, methanol, ethanol, or ethylene glycol. Activated carbon will not prevent these chemicals from being absorbed into the human body. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Incorrect application (e. g. into the lungs) results in pulmonary aspiration, which can sometimes be fatal if immediate medical treatment is not initiated.

Activated carbon, in 50% w/w combination with celite, is used as stationary phase in low pressure chromatographic separation of carbohydrates (mono , di , tri saccharides) using ethanol solutions (5–50%) as mobile phase in analytical or preparative protocols. Activated carbon is useful for extracting the direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) such as dabigatran, apixaban, rivaroxaban and edoxaban from blood plasma samples. For this purpose it has been made into "minitablets", each containing 5 mg activated carbon for treating 1ml samples of DOAC. Since this activated carbon has no effect on blood clotting factors, heparin or most other anticoagulants this allows a plasma sample to be analyzed for abnormalities otherwise affected by the DOACs.

Activated carbon filters (AC filters) can be used to filter vodka and whiskey of organic impurities which can affect color, taste, and odor. Passing an organically impure vodka through an activated carbon filter at the proper flow rate will result in vodka with an identical alcohol content and significantly increased organic purity, as judged by odor and taste.

Research is being done testing various activated carbons' ability to store natural gas The gas may then be desorbed when subjected to higher temperatures and either combusted to do work or in the case of hydrogen gas extracted for use in a hydrogen fuel cell. Gas storage in activated carbons is an appealing gas storage method because the gas can be stored in a low pressure, low mass, low volume environment that would be much more feasible than bulky on board pressure tanks in vehicles. The United States Department of Energy has specified certain goals to be achieved in the area of research and development of nano porous carbon materials. All of the goals are yet to be satisfied but numerous institutions, including the ALL CRAFT program,

Activated carbon, often infused with sulfur or iodine, is widely used to trap mercury emissions from coal fired power stations, medical incinerators, and from natural gas at the wellhead. However, despite its effectiveness, activated carbon is expensive to use. Since it is often not recycled, the mercury laden activated carbon presents a disposal dilemma. If the activated carbon contains less than 260 ppm mercury, United States federal regulations allow it to be stabilized (for example, trapped in concrete) for landfilling. However, waste containing greater than 260 ppm is considered to be in the high mercury subcategory and is banned from landfilling (Land Ban Rule). This material is now accumulating in warehouses and in deep abandoned mines at an estimated rate of 100 tons per year. The problem of disposal of mercury laden activated carbon is not unique to the United States. In the Netherlands, this mercury is largely recovered and the activated carbon is disposed of by complete burning, forming carbon dioxide .

Activated, food grade charcoal became a food trend in 2016, being used as an additive to impart a "slightly smoky" taste and a dark coloring to products including hotdogs, ice cream, pizza bases, and bagels. People taking medication, including birth control pills and antidepressants, are advised to avoid novelty foods or drinks that use activated charcoal coloring since it can render the medication ineffective.

Activated charcoal is used in smoking filters as a way to reduce the tar content and other chemicals present in smoke, which is a result of combustion, wherein it has been found to reduce the toxicants from tobacco smoke, in particular the free radicals. Harry Marsh and Francisco Rodríguez Reinoso considered more than 15 models for the structure, without coming to a definite conclusion about which was correct. Recent work using aberration corrected transmission electron microscopy has suggested that activated carbons may have a structure related to that of the fullerenes, with pentagonal and heptagonal carbon rings.

Activated carbons are complex products which are difficult to classify on the basis of their behaviour, surface characteristics and other fundamental criteria. However, some broad classification is made for general purposes based on their size, preparation methods, and industrial applications.

Normally, activated carbons (R 1) are made in particulate form as powders or fine granules less than 1.0 mm in size with an average diameter between 0.15 and 0.25 mm. Thus they present a large surface to volume ratio with a small diffusion distance. Activated carbon (R 1) is defined as the activated carbon particles retained on a 50 mesh sieve (0.297 mm). Powdered activated carbon (PAC) material is finer material. PAC is made up of crushed or ground carbon particles, 95–100% of which will pass through a designated mesh sieve. The ASTM classifies particles passing through an 80 mesh sieve (0.177 mm) and smaller as PAC. It is not common to use PAC in a dedicated vessel, due to the high head loss that would occur. Instead, PAC is generally added directly to other process units, such as raw water intakes, rapid mix basins, clarifiers, and gravity filters.

Granular activated carbon (GAC) has a relatively larger particle size compared to powdered activated carbon and consequently, presents a smaller external surface. Diffusion of the adsorbate is thus an important factor. These carbons are suitable for adsorption of gases and vapors, because gaseous substances diffuse rapidly. Granulated carbons are used for air filtration and water treatment, as well as for general deodorization and separation of components in flow systems and in rapid mix basins. GAC can be obtained in either granular or extruded form. GAC is designated by sizes such as 8×20, 20×40, or 8×30 for liquid phase applications and 4×6, 4×8 or 4×10 for vapor phase applications. A 20×40 carbon is made of particles that will pass through a U. S. Standard Mesh Size No. 20 sieve (0.84 mm) (generally specified as 85% passing) but be retained on a U. S. Standard Mesh Size No. 40 sieve (0.42 mm) (generally specified as 95% retained). AWWA (1992) B604 uses the 50 mesh sieve (0.297 mm) as the minimum GAC size. The most popular aqueous phase carbons are the 12×40 and 8×30 sizes because they have a good balance of size, surface area, and head loss characteristics.

Extruded activated carbon (EAC) combines powdered activated carbon with a binder, which are fused together and extruded into a cylindrical shaped activated carbon block with diameters from 0.8 to 130 mm. These are mainly used for gas phase applications because of their low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content. Also sold as CTO filter (Chlorine, Taste, Odor).

Bead activated carbon (BAC) is made from petroleum pitch and supplied in diameters from approximately 0.35 to 0.80 mm. Similar to EAC, it is also noted for its low pressure drop, high mechanical strength and low dust content, but with a smaller grain size. Its spherical shape makes it preferred for fluidized bed applications such as water filtration.

Porous carbons containing several types of inorganic impregnate such as iodine and silver. Cations such as aluminium, manganese, zinc, iron, lithium, and calcium have also been prepared for specific application in air pollution control especially in museums and galleries. Due to its antimicrobial and antiseptic properties, silver loaded activated carbon is used as an adsorbent for purification of domestic water. Drinking water can be obtained from natural water by treating the natural water with a mixture of activated carbon and aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3), a flocculating agent. Impregnated carbons are also used for the adsorption of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and thiols. Adsorption rates for H2S as high as 50% by weight have been reported.

This is a process by which a porous carbon can be coated with a biocompatible polymer to give a smooth and permeable coat without blocking the pores. The resulting carbon is useful for hemoperfusion. Hemoperfusion is a treatment technique in which large volumes of the patient's blood are passed over an adsorbent substance in order to remove toxic substances from the blood.

There is a technology of processing technical rayon fiber into activated carbon cloth for carbon filtering. Adsorption capacity of activated cloth is greater than that of activated charcoal (BET theory) surface area: 500–1500 m2/g, pore volume: 0.3–0.8 cm3/g). Thanks to the different forms of activated material, it can be used in a wide range of applications (supercapacitors, [Odor Absorbers , CBRN defense industry etc. ).

Many carbons preferentially adsorb small molecules. Iodine number is the most fundamental parameter used to characterize activated carbon performance. It is a measure of activity level (higher number indicates higher degree of activation) often reported in mg/g (typical range 500–1200 mg/g). It is a measure of the micropore content of the activated carbon (0 to 20 Å, or up to 2 nm) by adsorption of iodine from solution. It is equivalent to surface area of carbon between 900 and 1100 m2/g. It is the standard measure for liquid phase applications. Iodine number is defined as the milligrams of iodine adsorbed by one gram of carbon when the iodine concentration in the residual filtrate is at a concentration of 0.02 normal (i. e. 0.02N). Basically, iodine number is a measure of the iodine adsorbed in the pores and, as such, is an indication of the pore volume available in the activated carbon of interest. Typically, water treatment carbons have iodine numbers ranging from 600 to 1100. Frequently, this parameter is used to determine the degree of exhaustion of a carbon in use. However, this practice should be viewed with caution, as chemical interactions with the adsorbate may affect the iodine uptake, giving false results. Thus, the use of iodine number as a measure of the degree of exhaustion of a carbon bed can only be recommended if it has been shown to be free of chemical interactions with adsorbates and if an experimental correlation between iodine number and the degree of exhaustion has been determined for the particular application.

Some carbons are more adept at adsorbing large molecules. Molasses number or molasses efficiency is a measure of the mesopore content of the activated carbon (greater than 20 Å, or larger than 2 nm) by adsorption of molasses from solution. A high molasses number indicates a high adsorption of big molecules (range 95–600). Caramel dp (decolorizing performance) is similar to molasses number. Molasses efficiency is reported as a percentage (range 40%–185%) and parallels molasses number (600 = 185%, 425 = 85%). The European molasses number (range 525–110) is inversely related to the North American molasses number. Molasses Number is a measure of the degree of decolorization of a standard molasses solution that has been diluted and standardized against standardized activated carbon. Due to the size of color bodies, the molasses number represents the potential pore volume available for larger adsorbing species. As all of the pore volume may not be available for adsorption in a particular waste water application, and as some of the adsorbate may enter smaller pores, it is not a good measure of the worth of a particular activated carbon for a specific application. Frequently, this parameter is useful in evaluating a series of active carbons for their rates of adsorption. Given two active carbons with similar pore volumes for adsorption, the one having the higher molasses number will usually have larger feeder pores resulting in more efficient transfer of adsorbate into the adsorption space.

Tannins are a mixture of large and medium size molecules. Carbons with a combination of macropores and mesopores adsorb tannins. The ability of a carbon to adsorb tannins is reported in parts per million concentration (range 200 ppm–362 ppm).

Some carbons have a mesopore (20 Å to 50 Å, or 2 to 5 nm) structure which adsorbs medium size molecules, such as the dye methylene blue. Methylene blue adsorption is reported in g/100g (range 11–28 g/100g).

Some carbons are evaluated based on the dechlorination half life length, which measures the chlorine removal efficiency of activated carbon. The dechlorination half value length is the depth of carbon required to reduce the chlorine concentration by 50%. A lower half value length indicates superior performance.

The solid or skeletal density of activated carbons will typically range between 2000 and 2100 kg/m3 (125–130 lbs./cubic foot). However, a large part of an activated carbon sample will consist of air space between particles, and the actual or apparent density will therefore be lower, typically 400 to 500 kg/m3 (25–31 lbs./cubic foot). Higher density provides greater volume activity and normally indicates better quality activated carbon. ASTM D 2854 09 (2014) is used to determine the apparent density of activated carbon.

It is a measure of the activated carbon's resistance to attrition. It is an important indicator of activated carbon to maintain its physical integrity and withstand frictional forces. There are large differences in the hardness of activated carbons, depending on the raw material and activity levels (porosity).

Ash reduces the overall activity of activated carbon and reduces the efficiency of reactivation. The amount is exclusively dependent on the base raw material used to produce the activated carbon (e. g., coconut, wood, coal, etc.). The metal oxides (Fe2O3) can leach out of activated carbon resulting in discoloration. Acid/water soluble ash content is more significant than total ash content. Soluble ash content can be very important for aquarists, as ferric oxide can promote algal growths. A carbon with a low soluble ash content should be used for marine, freshwater fish and reef tanks to avoid heavy metal poisoning and excess plant/algal growth. ASTM (D2866 Standard Method test) is used to determine the ash content of activated carbon.

Measurement of the porosity of an activated carbon by the adsorption of saturated carbon tetrachloride vapour.

The finer the particle size of an activated carbon, the better the access to the surface area and the faster the rate of adsorption kinetics. In vapour phase systems this needs to be considered against pressure drop, which will affect energy cost. Careful consideration of particle size distribution can provide significant operating benefits. However, in the case of using activated carbon for adsorption of minerals such as gold, the particle size should be in the range of Activated carbon with particle size less than 1 mm would not be suitable for elution (the stripping of mineral from an activated carbon).

The most commonly encountered form of chemisorption in industry, occurs when a solid catalyst interacts with a gaseous feedstock, the reactant/s. The adsorption of reactant/s to the catalyst surface creates a chemical bond, altering the electron density around the reactant molecule and allowing it to undergo reactions that would not normally be available to it.

The reactivation or the regeneration of activated carbons involves restoring the adsorptive capacity of saturated activated carbon by desorbing adsorbed contaminants on the activated carbon surface.