Семипалатинский испытательный полигон: история и наследие ядерной эпохи.

Nuclear test site for the Soviet Union in northeast Kazakhstan
From 1996 to 2012, a secret joint operation of Kazakh, Russian, and American nuclear scientists and engineers secured the waste plutonium in the tunnels of the mountains. Since its closure on 29 August 1991, the Semipalatinsk Test Site has become the best researched nuclear testing site in the world, and the only one in the world open to the public year round.

The site was selected in 1947 by Lavrentiy Beria, political head of the Soviet atomic bomb project. Beria falsely claimed the vast 18,000 km² steppe was "uninhabited". Gulag labour was employed to build the primitive test facilities, including the laboratory complex in the northeast corner on the southern bank of the Irtysh River. The first Soviet bomb test, Operation First Lightning, nicknamed Joe One by the Americans, was conducted in 1949 from a tower at the Semipalatinsk Test Site, scattering fallout on nearby villages, which Beria had neglected to evacuate. The same area, "the experimental field", a region 40 mile (64 km) west of Kurchatov city, was used for more than 100 subsequent above ground weapons tests. Later tests were moved to the Balapan complex by the Chagan River in the southeast of the Semipalatinsk Polygon, including the site of the Chagan test, which formed Chagan Lake. Once atmospheric tests were banned, testing was transferred to underground locations at Saryozen, Murzhik in the west, and at the Degelen mountain complex in the south, which is riddled with boreholes and drifts for both subcritical and supercritical tests. After the closure of the Semipalatinsk labour camp, construction duties were performed by the 217th Separate Engineering and Mining Battalion, who later built the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Between 1949 and the cessation of atomic testing in 1989, 456 explosions were conducted at the STS, including 340 underground borehole and tunnel shots and 116 atmospheric, either air drop or tower shots. The lab complex, still the administrative and scientific centre of the STS, was renamed Kurchatov City after Igor Kurchatov, leader of the initial Soviet nuclear programme. The location of Kurchatov city has been typically shown on various maps as "Konechnaya", the name of the train station, now Degelen, or "Moldary", the name of the village that was later incorporated into the city. The Semipalatinsk Complex was of acute interest to foreign governments during its operation, particularly during the phase when explosions were carried out above ground at the experimental field. Several U 2 overflights examined preparations and weapons effects, before being replaced with satellite reconnaissance. The US Defense Intelligence Agency is said to have been convinced that the Soviets had constructed an enormous beam weapon station at a small research station located on the testing site. This smaller research station, known to the Department of Defense as PNUTS (Possible Nuclear Underground Test Site) and the CIA as URDF 3 (Unidentified Research and Development Facility 3) was of great interest to American observers. After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, it was discovered that the mysterious URDF 3 was tasked with researching a nuclear thermal rocket similar to the US's NERVA. The site was closed by the President of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic Nursultan Nazarbayev on 29 August 1991.

The Soviet Union conducted its last tests in 1989. After the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, the site was neglected. Fissile material was left behind in mountain tunnels and bore holes, virtually unguarded and vulnerable to scavengers, rogue states, or potential terrorists. The secret cleanup of Semipalatinsk was made public in the 2010s. After some of the tests, radioactive material remained on the now abandoned area, including significant amounts of plutonium. The risk that material might fall into the hands of scavengers or terrorists was considered one of the largest nuclear security threats since the collapse of the Soviet Union. The operation to address the problem involved, in part, pouring special concrete into test holes, to bind the waste plutonium. In other cases, horizontal mine test holes were sealed and the entrances covered over. Finally in October 2012, Kazakh, Russian, and American nuclear scientists and engineers celebrated the completion of a secret 17 year, $150 million operation to secure the plutonium in the tunnels of the mountains. Some have even considered themselves to be a new breed of human, a step up evolution. As they understand it, they are mutants who have grown and adapted to the radiation present in their home. According to UNESCO, Nevada Semipalatinsk played a positive role in promoting public understanding of "the necessity to fight against nuclear threats". The movement gained global support and became "a real historical factor in finding solutions to global ecological problems". These studies concluded that individuals who had been exposed to the fallout between 1949 and 1956 had an approximate 80% increase of mutations in the Minisatellite regions of their DNA. The children of these individuals had 50% more mutations in their mini satellite regions compared to their control counterparts. Some health scientists are still not sure what the germline mutations mean for the individuals' health, but there is increasing evidence these mutations may increase genetic predisposition to certain diseases such as cardiovascular diseases. There has also been evidence that increased levels of DNA mutation rates are correlated with prolonged
radiation exposure. A longitudinal study conducted over a 40 year span found a correlation between radiation fallout exposure and prevalence of solid tumors. The most frequent sites for solid tumors were the esophagus, stomach, lungs, breasts, and liver. These sites were found to have statistically significant increases in prevalence when compared to a control group. However some bodily sites had no significant difference in number: cervix uteri, kidney, rectum, and pancreas. A BBC programme claimed in 2010 that in the worst affected locations one in twenty children born were with genetic defects. British film maker Antony Butts documented some of the genetic health impacts in his 2010 film After the Apocalypse. A recently declassified CIA report provides a first hand witness account of the immediate impacts of a nuclear test near Semipalatinsk in 1955. In this report, a source who was in the vicinity of a Soviet thermonuclear test in November 1955 describes experiencing loss of hearing, "the air crackling up with pressure" as if the "air was tearing up," and the ground shaking. Ethnographic data from anthropological study detail some of the unique perspectives of those populations that are affected and still live within the area of radiation exposure that allow those populations to understand their circumstances and the biological subjectivity of concepts like safety and their survival within an area still affected by radiation. Although there are clear biological impacts of the radiation exposure, the surrounding communities rarely have a sense of nuclear victimization. The nation of Kazakhstan recognizes more than a million of their citizens as victims of Soviet era radiation exposure. In one village adjacent to the test site, categorized as “minimal risk,” the Kazakh government allots each resident a one time lump sum roughly equivalent to $50 USD. Although their health is negatively impacted by the radiation, residents see themselves as resilient. Many believe that they have genetically adapted to survive the radiation and report that they have come to rely upon it. One villager claimed that “Our organism is different now accustomed to radiation. For many years we were exposed to radioactive fallout, and now we eat it. Slowly and quietly, our bodies got used to it. Why do you think people don’t die [here], but only get a little sick? Most of us can’t live in clean air—we need radiation to survive. Clean air is our death. We are not deformed, just a little sick.” In the same manner, many within the village self report that when they venture outside the area for supplies, they suffer symptoms such as headaches, dizziness, and stomach cramps, furthering the thought that they have come to rely on the radiation to live. Overall, residents have embraced the radiation as a sign of their own genetic adaptation.

According to fieldwork in Koyan, with a population of 50, Koyaners have high rates of “anemia, cancer, hypertension, headaches, skin rashes, and bone pain” along with self reported hair loss, nosebleeds, and cataracts. While unhealthy, Stawkowski noted that there was an absence of “serious and life threatening deformities” that are portrayed, in media and by doctors, to be prevalent in people exposed to long term and low dose radiation. Examples of the mutations that could be found in Koyaners included “a man born with webbed feet, a woman with one slightly short thumb, and several people living with vitiligo” The nature of these mutations, coupled with the fact that villagers experienced aggravated symptoms upon leaving Koyan, Koyaners insist that they have biologically adapted to and subsequently rely on the radiation. To Koyaners, the prevalence of maladapted animals emphasized their resilience and further proved the success of their own adaptations. As one Koyaner said, “the raditation exposure made everyone ‘a little sick,’ but they have survived and live long lives”.

Semipalatinsk was the site that Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan chose for the signing of the Central Asian Nuclear Weapon Free Zone on 8 September 2006, also commemorating the 15th anniversary of the test site's closing.

The 2014 Russian film Test is a fictionalized account of the first Soviet nuclear test from the perspective of some of the local inhabitants. The Dead Lake by Hamid Ismailov explores the effects of the nuclear tests on Kazakhs.