Артиллерия: дальнобойное оружие для наземных сражений. История развития от осадных орудий до современной самоходной артиллерии и её роль в огневой мощи армии.
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Содержание
Введение
Дальнобойные орудия для наземных боевых действий
Long ranged guns for land warfare
Артиллерия – это оружие дальнего действия, выпускающее боеприпасы на значительно большее расстояние и с большей мощностью, чем стрелковое оружие пехоты. Раннее развитие артиллерии было сосредоточено на способности пробивать оборонительные стены и укрепления во время осад, что привело к созданию тяжелых, малоподвижных осадных машин. С улучшением технологий появились более легкие и мобильные полевые артиллерийские пушки для использования на поле боя. Это развитие продолжается и сегодня: современные самоходные артиллерийские установки – это высокомобильное оружие большой универсальности, обычно обеспечивающее наибольшую долю общей огневой мощи армии. Изначально слово «артиллерия» относилось к любой группе солдат, главным образом вооруженных каким-либо изготовленным оружием или доспехами. С момента появления пороха и пушек «артиллерия» в основном стала означать пушки, а в современном употреблении обычно относится к орудиям, стреляющим снарядами, гаубицам и минометам (совместно называемым ствольной, пушечной или орудийной артиллерией) и реактивной артиллерии. В обычной речи слово «артиллерия» часто используется для обозначения отдельных устройств, а также их аксессуаров и принадлежностей, хотя эти комплексы более правильно называются «оборудованием». Однако общепризнанного общего термина для обозначения пушки, гаубицы, миномета и т.д. не существует: в Соединенных Штатах используется термин «артиллерийское орудие», но большинство англоязычных армий используют термины «пушка» и «миномет». Снаряды, которые выпускаются, обычно являются либо «ядрами» (если они цельные), либо «снарядами» (если они не цельные). Исторически также использовались варианты цельных ядер, включая картечь, цепные ядра и шрапнель. «Снаряд» – это широко используемый общий термин для обозначения боеприпаса, являющегося компонентом боеприпасов. По ассоциации, артиллерия может также относиться к роду войск, который обычно управляет такими орудиями. В некоторых армиях артиллерийский род войск использовал полевую, береговую, зенитную и противотанковую артиллерию; в других они были отдельными родами войск, а в некоторых странах береговая артиллерия находилась в ведении военно-морского флота или морской пехоты. В 20-м веке появились приборы для определения целей (такие как радар) и методы (такие как звукометрия и вспышечная разведка), в основном для артиллерии. Обычно они используются одним или несколькими артиллерийскими подразделениями. Широкое распространение непрямой стрельбы в начале 20-го века привело к необходимости в специализированных данных для полевой артиллерии, в частности геодезических и метеорологических, а в некоторых армиях обеспечение этими данными является обязанностью артиллерийского рода войск. Большинство боевых потерь в Наполеоновских войнах, Первой мировой войне и Второй мировой войне было вызвано артиллерией. В 1944 году Иосиф Сталин в своей речи сказал, что артиллерия – это «бог войны». До введения пороха в западные войны артиллерия зависела от механической энергии, которая не только сильно ограничивала кинетическую энергию снарядов, но и требовала строительства очень больших машин для накопления достаточной энергии. Римская катапульта I века до н.э., запускавшая камни, достигала кинетической энергии 16 килоджоулей, по сравнению с 12-фунтовой пушкой середины XIX века, которая выпускала ядро с кинетической энергией 240 килоджоулей, или американским линкором XX века, который выпускал снаряд из главного калибра с энергией, превышающей 350 мегаджоулей. От Средневековья и до большей части современной эпохи артиллерийские орудия на суше перевозились на конных лафетах. В современную эпоху артиллерийские орудия и их расчёты полагались на колёсные или гусеничные транспортные средства. Эти наземные версии артиллерии были превзойдены железнодорожными пушками; самая большая из этих крупнокалиберных пушек, когда-либо задуманных – проект «Вавилон» в рамках дела «Суперпушка» – теоретически была способна вывести спутник на орбиту. Артиллерия, используемая военно-морскими силами, также значительно изменилась, и ракеты обычно заменяют пушки в морских сражениях. На протяжении всей военной истории снаряды изготавливались из самых разных материалов, в самых разных формах, с использованием множества различных методов для поражения вражеских укреплений и нанесения потерь противнику. Инженерные применения для доставки боеприпасов также значительно изменились с течением времени, охватывая одни из самых сложных и передовых технологий, используемых сегодня. В некоторых армиях боеприпас является оружием артиллерии, а не оборудование, которое его выпускает. Процесс доставки огня по цели называется артиллерийской стрельбой. Действия, связанные с управлением артиллерийским орудием, коллективно называются «обслуживанием орудия» расчётом или артиллерийским экипажем, осуществляющим либо прямую, либо непрямую артиллерийскую стрельбу. Способ, которым используются артиллерийские расчёты (или формирования), называется артиллерийской поддержкой. В разные периоды истории это может относиться к оружию, предназначенному для стрельбы с земли, с моря и даже с воздушных платформ.
Artillery are ranged weapons that launch munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during sieges, and led to heavy, fairly immobile siege engines. As technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery cannons developed for battlefield use. This development continues today; modern self propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility generally providing the largest share of an army's total firepower. Originally, the word "artillery" referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armour. Since the introduction of gunpowder and cannon, "artillery" has largely meant cannon, and in contemporary usage, usually refers to shell firing guns, howitzers, and mortars (collectively called barrel artillery, cannon artillery or gun artillery) and rocket artillery. In common speech, the word "artillery" is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings, although these assemblages are more properly called "equipment". However, there is no generally recognized generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forth: the United States uses "artillery piece", but most English speaking armies use "gun" and "mortar". The projectiles fired are typically either "shot" (if solid) or "shell" (if not solid). Historically, variants of solid shot including canister, chain shot and grapeshot were also used. "Shell" is a widely used generic term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions. By association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines. In some armies, the artillery arm has operated field, coastal, anti aircraft, and anti tank artillery; in others these have been separate arms, and with some nations coastal has been a naval or marine responsibility. In the 20th century, target acquisition devices (such as radar) and techniques (such as sound ranging and flash spotting) emerged, primarily for artillery. These are usually utilized by one or more of the artillery arms. The widespread adoption of indirect fire in the early 20th century introduced the need for specialist data for field artillery, notably survey and meteorological, and in some armies, provision of these are the responsibility of the artillery arm. The majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery. In 1944, Joseph Stalin said in a speech that artillery was "the god of war". Until the introduction of gunpowder into western warfare, artillery was dependent upon mechanical energy which not only severely limited the kinetic energy of the projectiles, it also required the construction of very large engines to accumulate sufficient energy. A 1st century BC Roman catapult launching stones achieved a kinetic energy of 16 kilojoules, compared to a mid 19th century 12 pounder gun, which fired a round, with a kinetic energy of 240 kilojoules, or a 20th century US battleship that fired a projectile from its main battery with an energy level surpassing 350 megajoules. From the Middle Ages through most of the modern era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse drawn gun carriages. In the contemporary era, artillery pieces and their crew relied on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation. These land versions of artillery were dwarfed by railway guns; the largest of these large calibre guns ever conceived – Project Babylon of the Supergun affair – was theoretically capable of putting a satellite into orbit. Artillery used by naval forces has also changed significantly, with missiles generally replacing guns in surface warfare. Over the course of military history, projectiles were manufactured from a wide variety of materials, into a wide variety of shapes, using many different methods in which to target structural/defensive works and inflict enemy casualties. The engineering applications for ordnance delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, encompassing some of the most complex and advanced technologies in use today. In some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it. The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery. The actions involved in operating an artillery piece are collectively called "serving the gun" by the "detachment" or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire. The manner in which gunnery crews (or formations) are employed is called artillery support. At different periods in history, this may refer to weapons designed to be fired from ground , sea , and even air based weapons platforms.
Экипаж
В некоторых вооруженных силах термин "артиллеристы" используется для обозначения солдат и моряков, чья основная функция – применение артиллерии. Артиллеристы и их орудия обычно объединяются в команды, называемые "расчетами" или "отрядами". Несколько таких расчетов и команд с другими функциями объединяются в артиллерийское подразделение, обычно называемое батареей, хотя иногда – ротой. В орудийных расчетах каждой должности присваивается номер, начиная с "1" – командир расчета, а высший номер – у наводчика, второго по командованию. "Артиллерист" также является самой низкой воинской должностью, а младшие нестроевые офицеры в некоторых родах артиллерии называются "бомбардирами". Батареи примерно соответствуют роте в пехоте и объединяются в более крупные военные организации для административных и оперативных целей – либо в батальоны, либо в полки, в зависимости от армии. Они могут объединяться в бригады; в российской армии некоторые бригады также объединяются в артиллерийские дивизии, а в Народно-освободительной армии существуют артиллерийские корпуса. Термин "артиллерия" также обозначает род войск в большинстве вооруженных сил, когда он используется в организационном плане для описания подразделений и соединений национальных вооруженных сил, использующих это оружие.
Some armed forces use the term "gunners" for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery. The gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either "crews" or "detachments". Several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company. In gun detachments, each role is numbered, starting with "1" the Detachment Commander, and the highest number being the Coverer, the second in command. "Gunner" is also the lowest rank, and junior non commissioned officers are "Bombardiers" in some artillery arms. Batteries are roughly equivalent to a company in the infantry, and are combined into larger military organizations for administrative and operational purposes, either battalions or regiments, depending on the army. These may be grouped into brigades; the Russian army also groups some brigades into artillery divisions, and the People's Liberation Army has artillery corps. The term "artillery" also designates a combat arm of most military services when used organizationally to describe units and formations of the national armed forces that operate the weapons.
Тактика
Во время военных операций полевая артиллерия выполняет роль поддержки других родов войск в бою или поражения целей, особенно на глубине. В целом, эти эффекты делятся на две категории: подавление или нейтрализация противника, либо нанесение потерь, повреждений и разрушений. Это достигается главным образом путем доставки высокоточных боеприпасов для подавления или нанесения противнику потерь осколками корпуса и другими обломками, а также ударной волной, либо путем уничтожения вражеских позиций, техники и транспортных средств. Нелетальные боеприпасы, в частности дымовые, также могут подавлять или нейтрализовать противника, скрывая его видимость. Управление огнем может осуществляться артиллерийским наблюдателем или другим наблюдателем, включая пилотируемые и беспилотные летательные аппараты, либо по координатам на карте. Военная доктрина на протяжении всей истории оказывала значительное влияние на основные инженерные аспекты проектирования артиллерийских орудий, стремясь к балансу между объемом огня и мобильностью орудий. Однако в современный период возникла и необходимость защиты артиллеристов, обусловленная появлением в конце XIX века нового поколения пехотного оружия с коническими пулями, более известными как пули Минье, дальность стрельбы которых была почти такой же, как у полевой артиллерии. Увеличение близости артиллеристов к другим родам войск в непосредственном бою и угроза атак с воздуха сделали необходимым введение орудийного щита. Проблемы применения стационарных или конно-буксируемых орудий в маневренной войне потребовали разработки новых методов транспортировки артиллерии в бой. Были разработаны две основные формы артиллерии: буксируемая пушка, предназначенная главным образом для атаки или обороны на фиксированном рубеже, и самоходная пушка, предназначенная для сопровождения мобильных сил и обеспечения непрерывной огневой поддержки и/или подавления. Эти факторы определяли развитие артиллерийских орудий, систем, организации и тактики до настоящего времени, в результате чего артиллерийские системы способны оказывать поддержку на дальностях от 100 м до межконтинентальной дальности баллистических ракет. Единственный вид боя, в котором артиллерия не может принимать участие, – это ближний бой, за исключением разведывательных групп артиллерии.
During military operations, field artillery has the role of providing support to other arms in combat or of attacking targets, particularly in depth. Broadly, these effects fall into two categories, aiming either to suppress or neutralize the enemy, or to cause casualties, damage, and destruction. This is mostly achieved by delivering high explosive munitions to suppress, or inflict casualties on the enemy from casing fragments and other debris and from blast, or by destroying enemy positions, equipment, and vehicles. Non lethal munitions, notably smoke, can also suppress or neutralize the enemy by obscuring their view. Fire may be directed by an artillery observer or another observer, including crewed and uncrewed aircraft, or called onto map coordinates. Military doctrine has had a significant influence on the core engineering design considerations of artillery ordnance through its history, in seeking to achieve a balance between the delivered volume of fire with ordnance mobility. However, during the modern period, the consideration of protecting the gunners also arose due to the late 19th century introduction of the new generation of infantry weapons using conoidal bullet, better known as the Minié ball, with a range almost as long as that of field artillery. The gunners' increasing proximity to and participation in direct combat against other combat arms and attacks by aircraft made the introduction of a gun shield necessary. The problems of how to employ a fixed or horse towed gun in mobile warfare necessitated the development of new methods of transporting the artillery into combat. Two distinct forms of artillery were developed: the towed gun, used primarily to attack or defend a fixed line; and the self propelled gun, intended to accompany a mobile force and to provide continuous fire support and/or suppression. These influences have guided the development of artillery ordnance, systems, organizations, and operations until the present, with artillery systems capable of providing support at ranges from as little as 100 m to the intercontinental ranges of ballistic missiles. The only combat in which artillery is unable to take part is close quarters combat, with the possible exception of artillery reconnaissance teams.
Этимология
Слово, используемое в современном контексте, возникло в Средние века. Одна из версий – оно происходит от французского atelier, означающего мастерскую, место для ручного труда. Другая версия связывает его происхождение с XIII веком и старофранцузским artillier, обозначавшим ремесленников и производителей всего – от материалов до военного снаряжения (копий, мечей, доспехов, боевых машин); и в течение последующих 250 лет значение слова "артиллерия" охватывало все виды военного оружия. Отсюда и название "Почётная артиллерийская рота", которая по сути являлась пехотным подразделением вплоть до XIX века. Ещё одна версия – итальянское arte de tirare ("искусство стрельбы"), предложенное одним из первых теоретиков артиллерии, Никколо Тарталья.
The word as used in the current context originated in the Middle Ages. One suggestion is that it comes from French atelier, meaning the place where manual work is done. Another suggestion is that it originates from the 13th century and the Old French artillier, designating craftsmen and manufacturers of all materials and warfare equipments (spears, swords, armor, war machines); and, for the next 250 years, the sense of the word "artillery" covered all forms of military weapons. Hence, the naming of the Honourable Artillery Company, which was essentially an infantry unit until the 19th century. Another suggestion is that it comes from the Italian arte de tirare (art of shooting), coined by one of the first theorists on the use of artillery, Niccolò Tartaglia.
История
Механические системы, использовавшиеся для метания снарядов в древней войне, также известные как "машины войны", такие как катапульта, оннагр, требушет и баллиста, также именуются военными историками артиллерией.
Mechanical systems used for throwing ammunition in ancient warfare, also known as "engines of war", like the catapult, onager, trebuchet, and ballista, are also referred to by military historians as artillery.
Средневековье
В средние века было разработано больше типов артиллерии, наиболее заметным из которых был требушет. Трационные требушеты, использующие мускульную силу для метания снарядов, применялись в Древнем Китае с IV века как оружие против живой силы. Однако в XII веке появился противовесный требушет, первое упоминание о котором относится к 1187 году.
During medieval times, more types of artillery were developed, most notably the trebuchet. Traction trebuchets, using manpower to launch projectiles, have been used in ancient China since the 4th century as anti personnel weapons. However, in the 12th century, the counterweight trebuchet was introduced, with the earliest mention of it being in 1187.
Изобретение пороха
[[Файл: 1350 г. н.э. ранние китайские вазообразные пушки. jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.8|Изображение ранней пушки вазообразной формы (здесь показана как "Длинноствольная устрашающая пушка" (威遠砲)) с примитивным прицелом и запальным отверстием, датируемое примерно 1350 годом нашей эры. Иллюстрация взята из книги династии Мин XIV века "Хуолунцзин". С развитием более совершенных металлургических технологий, более поздние пушки отказались от вазообразной формы ранней китайской артиллерии. Это изменение можно увидеть на бронзовой "тысячешаровой громовой пушке" – раннем примере полевой артиллерии. Эти небольшие, грубые орудия распространились на Ближний Восток (ма́дфаа) и в ограниченном количестве достигли Европы в XIII веке. В Азии монголы переняли китайскую артиллерию и эффективно использовали её в своих завоеваниях. К концу XIV века китайские повстанцы использовали организованную артиллерию и кавалерию, чтобы вытеснить монголов. Эти небольшие гладкоствольные стволы изначально отливались из железа или бронзы вокруг стержня, а первое задокументированное использование орудий с просверленным стволом зафиксировано около Севильи в 1247 году. Они стреляли свинцовыми, железными или каменными ядрами, иногда крупными стрелами, а порой просто горстями любого подвернувшегося хлама. Во время Столетней войны это оружие стало более распространенным, сначала в виде бомбард, а затем пушек. Пушки всегда заряжались с дула. Хотя предпринималось множество ранних попыток создания конструкций с задней зарядкой, недостаток инженерных знаний делал их даже более опасными в использовании, чем пушки с дульной зарядкой.
[[File:1350 AD early Chinese vase shaped cannon. jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.8|A depiction of an early vase shaped cannon (shown here as the "Long range Awe inspiring Cannon"(威遠砲)) complete with a crude sight and an ignition port dated from around 1350 AD. The illustration is from the 14th century Ming Dynasty book Huolongjing. With the development of better metallurgy techniques, later cannons abandoned the vase shape of early Chinese artillery. This change can be seen in the bronze "thousand ball thunder cannon", an early example of field artillery. These small, crude weapons diffused into the Middle East (the madfaa) and reached Europe in the 13th century, in a very limited manner. In Asia, Mongols adopted the Chinese artillery and used it effectively in the great conquest. By the late 14th century, Chinese rebels used organized artillery and cavalry to push Mongols out. As small smooth bore barrels, these were initially cast in iron or bronze around a core, with the first drilled bore ordnance recorded in operation near Seville in 1247. They fired lead, iron, or stone balls, sometimes large arrows and on occasions simply handfuls of whatever scrap came to hand. During the Hundred Years' War, these weapons became more common, initially as the bombard and later the cannon. Cannon were always muzzle loaders. While there were many early attempts at breech loading designs, a lack of engineering knowledge rendered these even more dangerous to use than muzzle loaders.
Наполеоновский период
На стене Акко установлена пушка XIX века, установленная в память о сопротивлении города осаде войск Наполеона в 1799 году. В эпоху Наполеоновских войн артиллерия претерпела изменения как в конструкции, так и в тактике применения. Артиллерия перестала быть под контролем "механиков" и стала рассматриваться как самостоятельный род войск, способный доминировать на поле боя. Успех французских артиллерийских рот был во многом обусловлен наличием специально обученных офицеров, руководивших и координировавших действия во время сражений. Сам Наполеон, бывший артиллерийский офицер, усовершенствовал тактику массированного применения артиллерийских батарей, обрушиваемых на ключевой участок в линии противника, как прелюдию к решающей атаке пехоты и кавалерии. Физически пушки продолжали становиться меньше и легче. Во время Семилетней войны король Фридрих II Прусский использовал эти усовершенствования для создания конной артиллерии, способной маневрировать по всему полю боя. Фридрих также внедрил двусторонний железный шомпол, который был гораздо прочнее старых деревянных моделей. Двусторонность также увеличивала скорострельность, поскольку солдату больше не нужно было беспокоиться о том, каким концом шомпола он пользуется. Французский артиллерийский инженер Жан-Батист де Грибоваль в середине XVIII века внедрил стандартизацию конструкции пушек. Он разработал полевую гаубицу калибра 6 дюймов (150 мм), у которой ствол, лафет и спецификации боеприпасов были унифицированы для всех французских пушек. Стандартизированные взаимозаменяемые детали этих пушек, включая гайки, болты и винты, значительно упростили их массовое производство и ремонт. Хотя система Грибоваля обеспечивала более эффективное производство и сборку, лафеты были тяжелыми, и артиллеристам приходилось маршировать пешком (в отличие от британской системы, где они ехали на лафете вместе с орудием). Каждая пушка получила название по весу своего снаряда, что привело к появлению вариантов с обозначениями 4, 8 и 12, указывающими вес в фунтах. Снаряды включали в себя цельные ядра или картечь, содержащую свинцовые пули или другие материалы. Картечь действовала как огромный дробовик, усыпая цель сотнями снарядов на короткой дистанции. Цельные ядра, известные как круглые, были наиболее эффективны при стрельбе на уровне плеч по открытой местности. Ядро пробивало ряды противника или отскакивало по земле, ломая ноги и лодыжки.
thumb|A 19th century cannon, set in the wall of Acre to commemorate the city's resistance to the 1799 siege by Napoleon's troops. With the Napoleonic Wars, artillery experienced changes in both physical design and operation. Rather than being overseen by "mechanics", artillery was viewed as its own service branch with the capability of dominating the battlefield. The success of the French artillery companies was at least in part due to the presence of specially trained artillery officers leading and coordinating during the chaos of battle. Napoleon, himself a former artillery officer, perfected the tactic of massed artillery batteries unleashed upon a critical point in his enemies' line as a prelude to a decisive infantry and cavalry assault. Physically, cannons continued to become smaller and lighter. During the Seven Years War, King Frederick II of Prussia used these advances to deploy horse artillery that could move throughout the battlefield. Frederick also introduced the reversible iron ramrod, which was much more resistant to breakage than older wooden designs. The reversibility aspect also helped increase the rate of fire, since a soldier would no longer have to worry about what end of the ramrod they were using. Jean Baptiste de Gribeauval, a French artillery engineer, introduced the standardization of cannon design in the mid 18th century. He developed a 6 inch (150 mm) field howitzer whose gun barrel, carriage assembly and ammunition specifications were made uniform for all French cannons. The standardized interchangeable parts of these cannons down to the nuts, bolts and screws made their mass production and repair much easier. While the Gribeauval system made for more efficient production and assembly, the carriages used were heavy and the gunners were forced to march on foot (instead of riding on the limber and gun as in the British system). Each cannon was named for the weight of its projectiles, giving us variants such as 4, 8, and 12, indicating the weight in pounds. The projectiles themselves included solid balls or canister containing lead bullets or other material. These canister shots acted as massive shotguns, peppering the target with hundreds of projectiles at close range. The solid balls, known as round shot, was most effective when fired at shoulder height across a flat, open area. The ball would tear through the ranks of the enemy or bounce along the ground breaking legs and ankles.
Стабилизация
Нарезные: Артиллерийские снаряды традиционно стабилизируются вращением, что означает, что они вращаются в полете, чтобы гироскопические силы предотвращали их кувыркание. Вращение создается за счет нарезов в стволе орудия, которые входят в мягкую металлическую полосу вокруг снаряда, называемую "направляющей полосой" (Великобритания) или "вращающейся полосой" (США). Направляющая полоса обычно изготавливается из меди, но могут использоваться и синтетические материалы. Гладкоствольные/стабилизированные плавниками: В современной артиллерии гладкоствольные стволы в основном используются в минометах. Эти снаряды используют плавники в воздушном потоке в задней части для поддержания правильной ориентации. Основные преимущества по сравнению с нарезными стволами – снижение износа ствола, большая дальность (за счет уменьшения потерь энергии на трение и утечки газов вокруг снаряда через нарезы) и более крупная взрывчатая часть для данного калибра артиллерии, поскольку требуется меньше металла для изготовления корпуса снаряда из-за меньшего воздействия на оболочку со стороны гладких стенок ствола. Нарезные/стабилизированные плавниками: Может использоваться комбинация вышеописанного, когда ствол имеет нарезы, но снаряд также оснащен раскладывающимися плавниками для стабилизации, наведения или планирования.
Rifled: Artillery projectiles have traditionally been spin stabilised, meaning that they spin in flight so that gyroscopic forces prevent them from tumbling. Spin is induced by gun barrels having rifling, which engages a soft metal band around the projectile, called a "driving band" (UK) or "rotating band" (U. S.). The driving band is usually made of copper, but synthetic materials have been used. Smoothbore/fin stabilized: In modern artillery, smoothbore barrels have been used mostly by mortars. These projectiles use fins in the airflow at their rear to maintain correct orientation. The primary benefits over rifled barrels is reduced barrel wear, longer ranges that can be achieved (due to the reduced loss of energy to friction and gas escaping around the projectile via the rifling) and larger explosive cores for a given caliber artillery due to less metal needing to be used to form the case of the projectile because of less force applied to the shell from the non rifled sides of the barrel of smooth bore guns. Rifled/fin stabilized: A combination of the above can be used, where the barrel is rifled, but the projectile also has deployable fins for stabilization, guidance or gliding.
Логистика
Поставки артиллерийских боеприпасов всегда были важным компонентом военной логистики. Вплоть до Первой мировой войны некоторые армии возлагали на артиллерию ответственность за все передовое снабжение боеприпасами, поскольку объем боеприпасов для стрелкового оружия был незначителен по сравнению с артиллерийскими. Разные армии применяют различные подходы к снабжению боеприпасами, которые могут меняться в зависимости от характера боевых действий. Различия заключаются в том, где логистическая служба передает артиллерийские боеприпасы артиллерийским подразделениям, в количестве боеприпасов, перевозимых подразделениями, и в объеме запасов, хранящихся на уровне подразделения или батареи. Ключевое различие состоит в том, является ли снабжение "толкающим" или "вытягивающим". В первом случае "канал снабжения" непрерывно обеспечивает поступление боеприпасов в формирования или подразделения с заданной скоростью. Во втором случае подразделения ведут огонь по тактической необходимости и пополняют запасы для поддержания или достижения установленного лимита (который может варьироваться), поэтому логистическая система должна быть способна справляться с пиковыми нагрузками и периодами сниженной потребности.
Supply of artillery ammunition has always been a major component of military logistics. Up until World War I some armies made artillery responsible for all forward ammunition supply because the load of small arms ammunition was trivial compared to artillery. Different armies use different approaches to ammunition supply, which can vary with the nature of operations. Differences include where the logistic service transfers artillery ammunition to artillery, the amount of ammunition carried in units and extent to which stocks are held at unit or battery level. A key difference is whether supply is 'push' or 'pull'. In the former the 'pipeline' keeps pushing ammunition into formations or units at a defined rate. In the latter units fire as tactically necessary and replenish to maintain or reach their authorised holding (which can vary), so the logistic system has to be able to cope with surge and slack.
Классификация
Финские вооруженные силы используют 130-мм пушку M 46 при выполнении задачи стрельбы прямой наводкой в ходе учений с боевыми стрельбами в 2010 году. Типы артиллерии можно классифицировать различными способами, например, по типу или калибру оружия и боеприпасов, по выполняемым задачам или по организационной структуре.
thumb|The Finnish Defence Forces using 130 mm Gun M 46 during a direct fire mission in a live fire exercise in 2010. Artillery types can be categorised in several ways, for example by type or size of weapon or ordnance, by role or by organizational arrangements.
Типы оборудования
Три основных типа артиллерийских орудий – полевые пушки, гаубицы и минометы. В течение XX века орудия и гаубицы постепенно сближались в плане применения, что делает различие между этими терминами несколько условным. К концу XX века настоящие пушки с калибрами более 60 мм стали редкостью в артиллерии, основными пользователями которых являются танки, корабли, а также немногочисленные сохранившиеся зенитные и береговые орудия. Термин "cannon" (пушка) является общеупотребительным в США и охватывает пушки, гаубицы и минометы, но не используется в других англоязычных армиях. Традиционные определения различали пушки и гаубицы по максимальному углу возвышения (значительно меньше 45° против близкого к 45° или больше), количеству зарядов (один или несколько) и начальной скорости снаряда, иногда определяемой длиной ствола. Эти три критерия дают восемь возможных комбинаций, из которых пушки и гаубицы – лишь две. Однако современные гаубицы имеют более высокую начальную скорость и длинные стволы, чем эквивалентные пушки первой половины XX века. Настоящие пушки характеризуются большой дальностью, максимальным углом возвышения значительно меньше 45°, высокой начальной скоростью снаряда и, соответственно, относительно длинным стволом, гладким каналом ствола (без нарезов) и использованием одного заряда. Последнее часто приводило к применению фиксированных боеприпасов, где снаряд жестко соединен с гильзой. Общепринятых минимальных значений начальной скорости или длины ствола для пушек не существует.
The three main types of artillery "gun" are field guns, howitzers, and mortars. During the 20th century, guns and howitzers have steadily merged in artillery use, making a distinction between the terms somewhat meaningless. By the end of the 20th century, true guns with calibers larger than about 60 mm have become very rare in artillery use, the main users being tanks, ships, and a few residual anti aircraft and coastal guns. The term "cannon" is a United States generic term that includes guns, howitzers, and mortars; it is not used in other English speaking armies. The traditional definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum elevation (well less than 45° as opposed to close to or greater than 45°), number of charges (one or more than one charge), and having higher or lower muzzle velocity, sometimes indicated by barrel length. These three criteria give eight possible combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two. However, modern "howitzers" have higher velocities and longer barrels than the equivalent "guns" of the first half of the 20th century. True guns are characterized by long range, having a maximum elevation significantly less than 45°, a high muzzle velocity and hence a relatively long barrel, smooth bore (no rifling) and a single charge. The latter often led to fixed ammunition where the projectile is locked to the cartridge case. There is no generally accepted minimum muzzle velocity or barrel length associated with a gun. thumb|A British 60 pounder gun at full recoil, in action during the Battle of Gallipoli, 1915. Photo by Ernest Brooks. Howitzers can fire at maximum elevations at least close to 45°; elevations up to about 70° are normal for modern howitzers. Howitzers also have a choice of charges, meaning that the same elevation angle of fire will achieve a different range depending on the charge used. They have rifled bores, lower muzzle velocities and shorter barrels than equivalent guns. All this means they can deliver fire with a steep angle of descent. Because of their multi charge capability, their ammunition is mostly separate loading (the projectile and propellant are loaded separately). That leaves six combinations of the three criteria, some of which have been termed gun howitzers. A term first used in the 1930s when howitzers with a relatively high maximum muzzle velocities were introduced, it never became widely accepted, most armies electing to widen the definition of "gun" or "howitzer". By the 1960s, most equipment had maximum elevations up to about 70°, were multi charge, had quite high maximum muzzle velocities and relatively long barrels. Mortars are simpler. The modern mortar originated in World War I and there were several patterns. After that war, most mortars settled on the Stokes pattern, characterized by a short barrel, smooth bore, low muzzle velocity, elevation angle of firing generally greater than 45°, and a very simple and light mounting using a "baseplate" on the ground. The projectile with its integral propelling charge was dropped down the barrel from the muzzle to hit a fixed firing pin. Since that time, a few mortars have become rifled and adopted breech loading. There are other recognized typifying characteristics for artillery. One such characteristic is the type of obturation used to seal the chamber and prevent gases escaping through the breech. This may use a metal cartridge case that also holds the propelling charge, a configuration called "QF" or "quickfiring" by some nations. The alternative does not use a metal cartridge case, the propellant being merely bagged or in combustible cases with the breech itself providing all the sealing. This is called "BL" or "breech loading" by some nations. A second characteristic is the form of propulsion. Modern equipment can either be towed or self propelled (SP). A towed gun fires from the ground and any inherent protection is limited to a gun shield. Towing by horse teams lasted throughout World War II in some armies, but others were fully mechanized with wheeled or tracked gun towing vehicles by the outbreak of that war. The size of a towing vehicle depends on the weight of the equipment and the amount of ammunition it has to carry. A variation of towed is portee, where the vehicle carries the gun which is dismounted for firing. Mortars are often carried this way. A mortar is sometimes carried in an armored vehicle and can either fire from it or be dismounted to fire from the ground. Since the early 1960s it has been possible to carry lighter towed guns and most mortars by helicopter. Even before that, they were parachuted or landed by glider from the time of the first airborne trials in the USSR in the 1930s. In SP equipment, the gun is an integral part of the vehicle that carries it. SPs first appeared during World War I, but did not really develop until World War II. They are mostly tracked vehicles, but wheeled SPs started to appear in the 1970s. Some SPs have no armor and carry few or no other weapons and ammunition. Armored SPs usually carry a useful ammunition load. Early armored SPs were mostly a "casemate" configuration, in essence an open top armored box offering only limited traverse. However, most modern armored SPs have a full enclosed armored turret, usually giving full traverse for the gun. Many SPs cannot fire without deploying stabilizers or spades, sometimes hydraulic. A few SPs are designed so that the recoil forces of the gun are transferred directly onto the ground through a baseplate. A few towed guns have been given limited self propulsion by means of an auxiliary engine. Two other forms of tactical propulsion were used in the first half of the 20th century: Railways or transporting the equipment by road, as two or three separate loads, with disassembly and re assembly at the beginning and end of the journey. Railway artillery took two forms, railway mountings for heavy and super heavy guns and howitzers and armored trains as "fighting vehicles" armed with light artillery in a direct fire role. Disassembled transport was also used with heavy and super heavy weapons and lasted into the 1950s.
На фотографии: британская 60-фунтовая пушка в момент максимального отката во время битвы при Галлиполи, 1915 год. Фотография Эрнеста Брукса.
The three main types of artillery "gun" are field guns, howitzers, and mortars. During the 20th century, guns and howitzers have steadily merged in artillery use, making a distinction between the terms somewhat meaningless. By the end of the 20th century, true guns with calibers larger than about 60 mm have become very rare in artillery use, the main users being tanks, ships, and a few residual anti aircraft and coastal guns. The term "cannon" is a United States generic term that includes guns, howitzers, and mortars; it is not used in other English speaking armies. The traditional definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum elevation (well less than 45° as opposed to close to or greater than 45°), number of charges (one or more than one charge), and having higher or lower muzzle velocity, sometimes indicated by barrel length. These three criteria give eight possible combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two. However, modern "howitzers" have higher velocities and longer barrels than the equivalent "guns" of the first half of the 20th century. True guns are characterized by long range, having a maximum elevation significantly less than 45°, a high muzzle velocity and hence a relatively long barrel, smooth bore (no rifling) and a single charge. The latter often led to fixed ammunition where the projectile is locked to the cartridge case. There is no generally accepted minimum muzzle velocity or barrel length associated with a gun. thumb|A British 60 pounder gun at full recoil, in action during the Battle of Gallipoli, 1915. Photo by Ernest Brooks. Howitzers can fire at maximum elevations at least close to 45°; elevations up to about 70° are normal for modern howitzers. Howitzers also have a choice of charges, meaning that the same elevation angle of fire will achieve a different range depending on the charge used. They have rifled bores, lower muzzle velocities and shorter barrels than equivalent guns. All this means they can deliver fire with a steep angle of descent. Because of their multi charge capability, their ammunition is mostly separate loading (the projectile and propellant are loaded separately). That leaves six combinations of the three criteria, some of which have been termed gun howitzers. A term first used in the 1930s when howitzers with a relatively high maximum muzzle velocities were introduced, it never became widely accepted, most armies electing to widen the definition of "gun" or "howitzer". By the 1960s, most equipment had maximum elevations up to about 70°, were multi charge, had quite high maximum muzzle velocities and relatively long barrels. Mortars are simpler. The modern mortar originated in World War I and there were several patterns. After that war, most mortars settled on the Stokes pattern, characterized by a short barrel, smooth bore, low muzzle velocity, elevation angle of firing generally greater than 45°, and a very simple and light mounting using a "baseplate" on the ground. The projectile with its integral propelling charge was dropped down the barrel from the muzzle to hit a fixed firing pin. Since that time, a few mortars have become rifled and adopted breech loading. There are other recognized typifying characteristics for artillery. One such characteristic is the type of obturation used to seal the chamber and prevent gases escaping through the breech. This may use a metal cartridge case that also holds the propelling charge, a configuration called "QF" or "quickfiring" by some nations. The alternative does not use a metal cartridge case, the propellant being merely bagged or in combustible cases with the breech itself providing all the sealing. This is called "BL" or "breech loading" by some nations. A second characteristic is the form of propulsion. Modern equipment can either be towed or self propelled (SP). A towed gun fires from the ground and any inherent protection is limited to a gun shield. Towing by horse teams lasted throughout World War II in some armies, but others were fully mechanized with wheeled or tracked gun towing vehicles by the outbreak of that war. The size of a towing vehicle depends on the weight of the equipment and the amount of ammunition it has to carry. A variation of towed is portee, where the vehicle carries the gun which is dismounted for firing. Mortars are often carried this way. A mortar is sometimes carried in an armored vehicle and can either fire from it or be dismounted to fire from the ground. Since the early 1960s it has been possible to carry lighter towed guns and most mortars by helicopter. Even before that, they were parachuted or landed by glider from the time of the first airborne trials in the USSR in the 1930s. In SP equipment, the gun is an integral part of the vehicle that carries it. SPs first appeared during World War I, but did not really develop until World War II. They are mostly tracked vehicles, but wheeled SPs started to appear in the 1970s. Some SPs have no armor and carry few or no other weapons and ammunition. Armored SPs usually carry a useful ammunition load. Early armored SPs were mostly a "casemate" configuration, in essence an open top armored box offering only limited traverse. However, most modern armored SPs have a full enclosed armored turret, usually giving full traverse for the gun. Many SPs cannot fire without deploying stabilizers or spades, sometimes hydraulic. A few SPs are designed so that the recoil forces of the gun are transferred directly onto the ground through a baseplate. A few towed guns have been given limited self propulsion by means of an auxiliary engine. Two other forms of tactical propulsion were used in the first half of the 20th century: Railways or transporting the equipment by road, as two or three separate loads, with disassembly and re assembly at the beginning and end of the journey. Railway artillery took two forms, railway mountings for heavy and super heavy guns and howitzers and armored trains as "fighting vehicles" armed with light artillery in a direct fire role. Disassembled transport was also used with heavy and super heavy weapons and lasted into the 1950s.
Гаубицы могут вести огонь на максимальных углах возвышения, по крайней мере, близких к 45°; для современных гаубиц нормальны углы до 70°. Гаубицы также позволяют выбирать заряды, что означает, что при одном и том же угле возвышения можно достичь разной дальности в зависимости от используемого заряда. Они имеют нарезные каналы ствола, более низкую начальную скорость снаряда и более короткие стволы, чем эквивалентные пушки. Это позволяет им вести огонь по крутой траектории. Благодаря возможности использования нескольких зарядов, боеприпасы для гаубиц обычно состоят из раздельно-заряжающихся снарядов (снаряд и метательный заряд загружаются отдельно). Это оставляет шесть комбинаций из трех критериев, некоторые из которых получили название "пушечных гаубиц". Этот термин впервые был использован в 1930-х годах, когда появились гаубицы с относительно высокой начальной скоростью, но он не получил широкого распространения, поскольку большинство армий предпочли расширить определение "пушки" или "гаубицы". К 1960-м годам большинство артиллерийских систем имели максимальные углы возвышения до 70°, использовали несколько зарядов, обладали достаточно высокой начальной скоростью и относительно длинными стволами.
The three main types of artillery "gun" are field guns, howitzers, and mortars. During the 20th century, guns and howitzers have steadily merged in artillery use, making a distinction between the terms somewhat meaningless. By the end of the 20th century, true guns with calibers larger than about 60 mm have become very rare in artillery use, the main users being tanks, ships, and a few residual anti aircraft and coastal guns. The term "cannon" is a United States generic term that includes guns, howitzers, and mortars; it is not used in other English speaking armies. The traditional definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum elevation (well less than 45° as opposed to close to or greater than 45°), number of charges (one or more than one charge), and having higher or lower muzzle velocity, sometimes indicated by barrel length. These three criteria give eight possible combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two. However, modern "howitzers" have higher velocities and longer barrels than the equivalent "guns" of the first half of the 20th century. True guns are characterized by long range, having a maximum elevation significantly less than 45°, a high muzzle velocity and hence a relatively long barrel, smooth bore (no rifling) and a single charge. The latter often led to fixed ammunition where the projectile is locked to the cartridge case. There is no generally accepted minimum muzzle velocity or barrel length associated with a gun. thumb|A British 60 pounder gun at full recoil, in action during the Battle of Gallipoli, 1915. Photo by Ernest Brooks. Howitzers can fire at maximum elevations at least close to 45°; elevations up to about 70° are normal for modern howitzers. Howitzers also have a choice of charges, meaning that the same elevation angle of fire will achieve a different range depending on the charge used. They have rifled bores, lower muzzle velocities and shorter barrels than equivalent guns. All this means they can deliver fire with a steep angle of descent. Because of their multi charge capability, their ammunition is mostly separate loading (the projectile and propellant are loaded separately). That leaves six combinations of the three criteria, some of which have been termed gun howitzers. A term first used in the 1930s when howitzers with a relatively high maximum muzzle velocities were introduced, it never became widely accepted, most armies electing to widen the definition of "gun" or "howitzer". By the 1960s, most equipment had maximum elevations up to about 70°, were multi charge, had quite high maximum muzzle velocities and relatively long barrels. Mortars are simpler. The modern mortar originated in World War I and there were several patterns. After that war, most mortars settled on the Stokes pattern, characterized by a short barrel, smooth bore, low muzzle velocity, elevation angle of firing generally greater than 45°, and a very simple and light mounting using a "baseplate" on the ground. The projectile with its integral propelling charge was dropped down the barrel from the muzzle to hit a fixed firing pin. Since that time, a few mortars have become rifled and adopted breech loading. There are other recognized typifying characteristics for artillery. One such characteristic is the type of obturation used to seal the chamber and prevent gases escaping through the breech. This may use a metal cartridge case that also holds the propelling charge, a configuration called "QF" or "quickfiring" by some nations. The alternative does not use a metal cartridge case, the propellant being merely bagged or in combustible cases with the breech itself providing all the sealing. This is called "BL" or "breech loading" by some nations. A second characteristic is the form of propulsion. Modern equipment can either be towed or self propelled (SP). A towed gun fires from the ground and any inherent protection is limited to a gun shield. Towing by horse teams lasted throughout World War II in some armies, but others were fully mechanized with wheeled or tracked gun towing vehicles by the outbreak of that war. The size of a towing vehicle depends on the weight of the equipment and the amount of ammunition it has to carry. A variation of towed is portee, where the vehicle carries the gun which is dismounted for firing. Mortars are often carried this way. A mortar is sometimes carried in an armored vehicle and can either fire from it or be dismounted to fire from the ground. Since the early 1960s it has been possible to carry lighter towed guns and most mortars by helicopter. Even before that, they were parachuted or landed by glider from the time of the first airborne trials in the USSR in the 1930s. In SP equipment, the gun is an integral part of the vehicle that carries it. SPs first appeared during World War I, but did not really develop until World War II. They are mostly tracked vehicles, but wheeled SPs started to appear in the 1970s. Some SPs have no armor and carry few or no other weapons and ammunition. Armored SPs usually carry a useful ammunition load. Early armored SPs were mostly a "casemate" configuration, in essence an open top armored box offering only limited traverse. However, most modern armored SPs have a full enclosed armored turret, usually giving full traverse for the gun. Many SPs cannot fire without deploying stabilizers or spades, sometimes hydraulic. A few SPs are designed so that the recoil forces of the gun are transferred directly onto the ground through a baseplate. A few towed guns have been given limited self propulsion by means of an auxiliary engine. Two other forms of tactical propulsion were used in the first half of the 20th century: Railways or transporting the equipment by road, as two or three separate loads, with disassembly and re assembly at the beginning and end of the journey. Railway artillery took two forms, railway mountings for heavy and super heavy guns and howitzers and armored trains as "fighting vehicles" armed with light artillery in a direct fire role. Disassembled transport was also used with heavy and super heavy weapons and lasted into the 1950s.
Минометы проще по конструкции. Современный миномет появился во время Первой мировой войны и имел несколько образцов. После этой войны большинство минометов перешли на конструкцию образца Стоукса, характеризующуюся коротким стволом, гладким каналом ствола, низкой начальной скоростью снаряда, углом возвышения, обычно превышающим 45°, и простой и легкой установкой на "опорной плите" на земле. Снаряд с встроенным метательным зарядом опускался в ствол с дула и ударялся о фиксированный ударник. С тех пор некоторые минометы получили нарезные каналы ствола и систему заряжания с задней части ствола.
The three main types of artillery "gun" are field guns, howitzers, and mortars. During the 20th century, guns and howitzers have steadily merged in artillery use, making a distinction between the terms somewhat meaningless. By the end of the 20th century, true guns with calibers larger than about 60 mm have become very rare in artillery use, the main users being tanks, ships, and a few residual anti aircraft and coastal guns. The term "cannon" is a United States generic term that includes guns, howitzers, and mortars; it is not used in other English speaking armies. The traditional definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum elevation (well less than 45° as opposed to close to or greater than 45°), number of charges (one or more than one charge), and having higher or lower muzzle velocity, sometimes indicated by barrel length. These three criteria give eight possible combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two. However, modern "howitzers" have higher velocities and longer barrels than the equivalent "guns" of the first half of the 20th century. True guns are characterized by long range, having a maximum elevation significantly less than 45°, a high muzzle velocity and hence a relatively long barrel, smooth bore (no rifling) and a single charge. The latter often led to fixed ammunition where the projectile is locked to the cartridge case. There is no generally accepted minimum muzzle velocity or barrel length associated with a gun. thumb|A British 60 pounder gun at full recoil, in action during the Battle of Gallipoli, 1915. Photo by Ernest Brooks. Howitzers can fire at maximum elevations at least close to 45°; elevations up to about 70° are normal for modern howitzers. Howitzers also have a choice of charges, meaning that the same elevation angle of fire will achieve a different range depending on the charge used. They have rifled bores, lower muzzle velocities and shorter barrels than equivalent guns. All this means they can deliver fire with a steep angle of descent. Because of their multi charge capability, their ammunition is mostly separate loading (the projectile and propellant are loaded separately). That leaves six combinations of the three criteria, some of which have been termed gun howitzers. A term first used in the 1930s when howitzers with a relatively high maximum muzzle velocities were introduced, it never became widely accepted, most armies electing to widen the definition of "gun" or "howitzer". By the 1960s, most equipment had maximum elevations up to about 70°, were multi charge, had quite high maximum muzzle velocities and relatively long barrels. Mortars are simpler. The modern mortar originated in World War I and there were several patterns. After that war, most mortars settled on the Stokes pattern, characterized by a short barrel, smooth bore, low muzzle velocity, elevation angle of firing generally greater than 45°, and a very simple and light mounting using a "baseplate" on the ground. The projectile with its integral propelling charge was dropped down the barrel from the muzzle to hit a fixed firing pin. Since that time, a few mortars have become rifled and adopted breech loading. There are other recognized typifying characteristics for artillery. One such characteristic is the type of obturation used to seal the chamber and prevent gases escaping through the breech. This may use a metal cartridge case that also holds the propelling charge, a configuration called "QF" or "quickfiring" by some nations. The alternative does not use a metal cartridge case, the propellant being merely bagged or in combustible cases with the breech itself providing all the sealing. This is called "BL" or "breech loading" by some nations. A second characteristic is the form of propulsion. Modern equipment can either be towed or self propelled (SP). A towed gun fires from the ground and any inherent protection is limited to a gun shield. Towing by horse teams lasted throughout World War II in some armies, but others were fully mechanized with wheeled or tracked gun towing vehicles by the outbreak of that war. The size of a towing vehicle depends on the weight of the equipment and the amount of ammunition it has to carry. A variation of towed is portee, where the vehicle carries the gun which is dismounted for firing. Mortars are often carried this way. A mortar is sometimes carried in an armored vehicle and can either fire from it or be dismounted to fire from the ground. Since the early 1960s it has been possible to carry lighter towed guns and most mortars by helicopter. Even before that, they were parachuted or landed by glider from the time of the first airborne trials in the USSR in the 1930s. In SP equipment, the gun is an integral part of the vehicle that carries it. SPs first appeared during World War I, but did not really develop until World War II. They are mostly tracked vehicles, but wheeled SPs started to appear in the 1970s. Some SPs have no armor and carry few or no other weapons and ammunition. Armored SPs usually carry a useful ammunition load. Early armored SPs were mostly a "casemate" configuration, in essence an open top armored box offering only limited traverse. However, most modern armored SPs have a full enclosed armored turret, usually giving full traverse for the gun. Many SPs cannot fire without deploying stabilizers or spades, sometimes hydraulic. A few SPs are designed so that the recoil forces of the gun are transferred directly onto the ground through a baseplate. A few towed guns have been given limited self propulsion by means of an auxiliary engine. Two other forms of tactical propulsion were used in the first half of the 20th century: Railways or transporting the equipment by road, as two or three separate loads, with disassembly and re assembly at the beginning and end of the journey. Railway artillery took two forms, railway mountings for heavy and super heavy guns and howitzers and armored trains as "fighting vehicles" armed with light artillery in a direct fire role. Disassembled transport was also used with heavy and super heavy weapons and lasted into the 1950s.
Существуют и другие характерные особенности артиллерийских орудий. Одной из них является тип запирания, используемый для герметизации каморы и предотвращения выхода газов через затвор. Это может быть металлическая гильза, которая также содержит метательный заряд (конфигурация, называемая "QF" или "quickfiring" – быстрострельная, в некоторых странах), или же метательный заряд помещается в мешки или горючие картузы, а герметизация обеспечивается самим затвором (конфигурация, называемая "BL" или "breech loading" – заряжание с задней части ствола, в некоторых странах).
The three main types of artillery "gun" are field guns, howitzers, and mortars. During the 20th century, guns and howitzers have steadily merged in artillery use, making a distinction between the terms somewhat meaningless. By the end of the 20th century, true guns with calibers larger than about 60 mm have become very rare in artillery use, the main users being tanks, ships, and a few residual anti aircraft and coastal guns. The term "cannon" is a United States generic term that includes guns, howitzers, and mortars; it is not used in other English speaking armies. The traditional definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum elevation (well less than 45° as opposed to close to or greater than 45°), number of charges (one or more than one charge), and having higher or lower muzzle velocity, sometimes indicated by barrel length. These three criteria give eight possible combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two. However, modern "howitzers" have higher velocities and longer barrels than the equivalent "guns" of the first half of the 20th century. True guns are characterized by long range, having a maximum elevation significantly less than 45°, a high muzzle velocity and hence a relatively long barrel, smooth bore (no rifling) and a single charge. The latter often led to fixed ammunition where the projectile is locked to the cartridge case. There is no generally accepted minimum muzzle velocity or barrel length associated with a gun. thumb|A British 60 pounder gun at full recoil, in action during the Battle of Gallipoli, 1915. Photo by Ernest Brooks. Howitzers can fire at maximum elevations at least close to 45°; elevations up to about 70° are normal for modern howitzers. Howitzers also have a choice of charges, meaning that the same elevation angle of fire will achieve a different range depending on the charge used. They have rifled bores, lower muzzle velocities and shorter barrels than equivalent guns. All this means they can deliver fire with a steep angle of descent. Because of their multi charge capability, their ammunition is mostly separate loading (the projectile and propellant are loaded separately). That leaves six combinations of the three criteria, some of which have been termed gun howitzers. A term first used in the 1930s when howitzers with a relatively high maximum muzzle velocities were introduced, it never became widely accepted, most armies electing to widen the definition of "gun" or "howitzer". By the 1960s, most equipment had maximum elevations up to about 70°, were multi charge, had quite high maximum muzzle velocities and relatively long barrels. Mortars are simpler. The modern mortar originated in World War I and there were several patterns. After that war, most mortars settled on the Stokes pattern, characterized by a short barrel, smooth bore, low muzzle velocity, elevation angle of firing generally greater than 45°, and a very simple and light mounting using a "baseplate" on the ground. The projectile with its integral propelling charge was dropped down the barrel from the muzzle to hit a fixed firing pin. Since that time, a few mortars have become rifled and adopted breech loading. There are other recognized typifying characteristics for artillery. One such characteristic is the type of obturation used to seal the chamber and prevent gases escaping through the breech. This may use a metal cartridge case that also holds the propelling charge, a configuration called "QF" or "quickfiring" by some nations. The alternative does not use a metal cartridge case, the propellant being merely bagged or in combustible cases with the breech itself providing all the sealing. This is called "BL" or "breech loading" by some nations. A second characteristic is the form of propulsion. Modern equipment can either be towed or self propelled (SP). A towed gun fires from the ground and any inherent protection is limited to a gun shield. Towing by horse teams lasted throughout World War II in some armies, but others were fully mechanized with wheeled or tracked gun towing vehicles by the outbreak of that war. The size of a towing vehicle depends on the weight of the equipment and the amount of ammunition it has to carry. A variation of towed is portee, where the vehicle carries the gun which is dismounted for firing. Mortars are often carried this way. A mortar is sometimes carried in an armored vehicle and can either fire from it or be dismounted to fire from the ground. Since the early 1960s it has been possible to carry lighter towed guns and most mortars by helicopter. Even before that, they were parachuted or landed by glider from the time of the first airborne trials in the USSR in the 1930s. In SP equipment, the gun is an integral part of the vehicle that carries it. SPs first appeared during World War I, but did not really develop until World War II. They are mostly tracked vehicles, but wheeled SPs started to appear in the 1970s. Some SPs have no armor and carry few or no other weapons and ammunition. Armored SPs usually carry a useful ammunition load. Early armored SPs were mostly a "casemate" configuration, in essence an open top armored box offering only limited traverse. However, most modern armored SPs have a full enclosed armored turret, usually giving full traverse for the gun. Many SPs cannot fire without deploying stabilizers or spades, sometimes hydraulic. A few SPs are designed so that the recoil forces of the gun are transferred directly onto the ground through a baseplate. A few towed guns have been given limited self propulsion by means of an auxiliary engine. Two other forms of tactical propulsion were used in the first half of the 20th century: Railways or transporting the equipment by road, as two or three separate loads, with disassembly and re assembly at the beginning and end of the journey. Railway artillery took two forms, railway mountings for heavy and super heavy guns and howitzers and armored trains as "fighting vehicles" armed with light artillery in a direct fire role. Disassembled transport was also used with heavy and super heavy weapons and lasted into the 1950s.
Другой характеристикой является способ передвижения. Современные артиллерийские системы могут быть буксируемыми или самоходными (САУ). Буксируемая пушка ведет огонь с земли, а ее защита ограничивается щитом. В некоторых армиях конная тяга использовалась до конца Второй мировой войны, но другие армии к началу этой войны были полностью механизированы и использовали колесные или гусеничные тягачи. Размер тягача зависит от веса орудия и количества перевозимых боеприпасов. Вариантом буксируемой артиллерии является "portee" (полусамоходная установка), когда орудие перевозится на транспортном средстве и снимается для ведения огня. Минометы часто перевозятся таким способом. Миномет иногда перевозится в бронированном транспортере и может вести огонь из него или быть снят для ведения огня с земли.
The three main types of artillery "gun" are field guns, howitzers, and mortars. During the 20th century, guns and howitzers have steadily merged in artillery use, making a distinction between the terms somewhat meaningless. By the end of the 20th century, true guns with calibers larger than about 60 mm have become very rare in artillery use, the main users being tanks, ships, and a few residual anti aircraft and coastal guns. The term "cannon" is a United States generic term that includes guns, howitzers, and mortars; it is not used in other English speaking armies. The traditional definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum elevation (well less than 45° as opposed to close to or greater than 45°), number of charges (one or more than one charge), and having higher or lower muzzle velocity, sometimes indicated by barrel length. These three criteria give eight possible combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two. However, modern "howitzers" have higher velocities and longer barrels than the equivalent "guns" of the first half of the 20th century. True guns are characterized by long range, having a maximum elevation significantly less than 45°, a high muzzle velocity and hence a relatively long barrel, smooth bore (no rifling) and a single charge. The latter often led to fixed ammunition where the projectile is locked to the cartridge case. There is no generally accepted minimum muzzle velocity or barrel length associated with a gun. thumb|A British 60 pounder gun at full recoil, in action during the Battle of Gallipoli, 1915. Photo by Ernest Brooks. Howitzers can fire at maximum elevations at least close to 45°; elevations up to about 70° are normal for modern howitzers. Howitzers also have a choice of charges, meaning that the same elevation angle of fire will achieve a different range depending on the charge used. They have rifled bores, lower muzzle velocities and shorter barrels than equivalent guns. All this means they can deliver fire with a steep angle of descent. Because of their multi charge capability, their ammunition is mostly separate loading (the projectile and propellant are loaded separately). That leaves six combinations of the three criteria, some of which have been termed gun howitzers. A term first used in the 1930s when howitzers with a relatively high maximum muzzle velocities were introduced, it never became widely accepted, most armies electing to widen the definition of "gun" or "howitzer". By the 1960s, most equipment had maximum elevations up to about 70°, were multi charge, had quite high maximum muzzle velocities and relatively long barrels. Mortars are simpler. The modern mortar originated in World War I and there were several patterns. After that war, most mortars settled on the Stokes pattern, characterized by a short barrel, smooth bore, low muzzle velocity, elevation angle of firing generally greater than 45°, and a very simple and light mounting using a "baseplate" on the ground. The projectile with its integral propelling charge was dropped down the barrel from the muzzle to hit a fixed firing pin. Since that time, a few mortars have become rifled and adopted breech loading. There are other recognized typifying characteristics for artillery. One such characteristic is the type of obturation used to seal the chamber and prevent gases escaping through the breech. This may use a metal cartridge case that also holds the propelling charge, a configuration called "QF" or "quickfiring" by some nations. The alternative does not use a metal cartridge case, the propellant being merely bagged or in combustible cases with the breech itself providing all the sealing. This is called "BL" or "breech loading" by some nations. A second characteristic is the form of propulsion. Modern equipment can either be towed or self propelled (SP). A towed gun fires from the ground and any inherent protection is limited to a gun shield. Towing by horse teams lasted throughout World War II in some armies, but others were fully mechanized with wheeled or tracked gun towing vehicles by the outbreak of that war. The size of a towing vehicle depends on the weight of the equipment and the amount of ammunition it has to carry. A variation of towed is portee, where the vehicle carries the gun which is dismounted for firing. Mortars are often carried this way. A mortar is sometimes carried in an armored vehicle and can either fire from it or be dismounted to fire from the ground. Since the early 1960s it has been possible to carry lighter towed guns and most mortars by helicopter. Even before that, they were parachuted or landed by glider from the time of the first airborne trials in the USSR in the 1930s. In SP equipment, the gun is an integral part of the vehicle that carries it. SPs first appeared during World War I, but did not really develop until World War II. They are mostly tracked vehicles, but wheeled SPs started to appear in the 1970s. Some SPs have no armor and carry few or no other weapons and ammunition. Armored SPs usually carry a useful ammunition load. Early armored SPs were mostly a "casemate" configuration, in essence an open top armored box offering only limited traverse. However, most modern armored SPs have a full enclosed armored turret, usually giving full traverse for the gun. Many SPs cannot fire without deploying stabilizers or spades, sometimes hydraulic. A few SPs are designed so that the recoil forces of the gun are transferred directly onto the ground through a baseplate. A few towed guns have been given limited self propulsion by means of an auxiliary engine. Two other forms of tactical propulsion were used in the first half of the 20th century: Railways or transporting the equipment by road, as two or three separate loads, with disassembly and re assembly at the beginning and end of the journey. Railway artillery took two forms, railway mountings for heavy and super heavy guns and howitzers and armored trains as "fighting vehicles" armed with light artillery in a direct fire role. Disassembled transport was also used with heavy and super heavy weapons and lasted into the 1950s.
С начала 1960-х годов стало возможным перевозить легкие буксируемые пушки и большинство минометов вертолетом. Еще раньше, с 1930-х годов в СССР, они сбрасывались с парашютом или десантировались на планерах во время первых воздушно-десантных учений.
The three main types of artillery "gun" are field guns, howitzers, and mortars. During the 20th century, guns and howitzers have steadily merged in artillery use, making a distinction between the terms somewhat meaningless. By the end of the 20th century, true guns with calibers larger than about 60 mm have become very rare in artillery use, the main users being tanks, ships, and a few residual anti aircraft and coastal guns. The term "cannon" is a United States generic term that includes guns, howitzers, and mortars; it is not used in other English speaking armies. The traditional definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum elevation (well less than 45° as opposed to close to or greater than 45°), number of charges (one or more than one charge), and having higher or lower muzzle velocity, sometimes indicated by barrel length. These three criteria give eight possible combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two. However, modern "howitzers" have higher velocities and longer barrels than the equivalent "guns" of the first half of the 20th century. True guns are characterized by long range, having a maximum elevation significantly less than 45°, a high muzzle velocity and hence a relatively long barrel, smooth bore (no rifling) and a single charge. The latter often led to fixed ammunition where the projectile is locked to the cartridge case. There is no generally accepted minimum muzzle velocity or barrel length associated with a gun. thumb|A British 60 pounder gun at full recoil, in action during the Battle of Gallipoli, 1915. Photo by Ernest Brooks. Howitzers can fire at maximum elevations at least close to 45°; elevations up to about 70° are normal for modern howitzers. Howitzers also have a choice of charges, meaning that the same elevation angle of fire will achieve a different range depending on the charge used. They have rifled bores, lower muzzle velocities and shorter barrels than equivalent guns. All this means they can deliver fire with a steep angle of descent. Because of their multi charge capability, their ammunition is mostly separate loading (the projectile and propellant are loaded separately). That leaves six combinations of the three criteria, some of which have been termed gun howitzers. A term first used in the 1930s when howitzers with a relatively high maximum muzzle velocities were introduced, it never became widely accepted, most armies electing to widen the definition of "gun" or "howitzer". By the 1960s, most equipment had maximum elevations up to about 70°, were multi charge, had quite high maximum muzzle velocities and relatively long barrels. Mortars are simpler. The modern mortar originated in World War I and there were several patterns. After that war, most mortars settled on the Stokes pattern, characterized by a short barrel, smooth bore, low muzzle velocity, elevation angle of firing generally greater than 45°, and a very simple and light mounting using a "baseplate" on the ground. The projectile with its integral propelling charge was dropped down the barrel from the muzzle to hit a fixed firing pin. Since that time, a few mortars have become rifled and adopted breech loading. There are other recognized typifying characteristics for artillery. One such characteristic is the type of obturation used to seal the chamber and prevent gases escaping through the breech. This may use a metal cartridge case that also holds the propelling charge, a configuration called "QF" or "quickfiring" by some nations. The alternative does not use a metal cartridge case, the propellant being merely bagged or in combustible cases with the breech itself providing all the sealing. This is called "BL" or "breech loading" by some nations. A second characteristic is the form of propulsion. Modern equipment can either be towed or self propelled (SP). A towed gun fires from the ground and any inherent protection is limited to a gun shield. Towing by horse teams lasted throughout World War II in some armies, but others were fully mechanized with wheeled or tracked gun towing vehicles by the outbreak of that war. The size of a towing vehicle depends on the weight of the equipment and the amount of ammunition it has to carry. A variation of towed is portee, where the vehicle carries the gun which is dismounted for firing. Mortars are often carried this way. A mortar is sometimes carried in an armored vehicle and can either fire from it or be dismounted to fire from the ground. Since the early 1960s it has been possible to carry lighter towed guns and most mortars by helicopter. Even before that, they were parachuted or landed by glider from the time of the first airborne trials in the USSR in the 1930s. In SP equipment, the gun is an integral part of the vehicle that carries it. SPs first appeared during World War I, but did not really develop until World War II. They are mostly tracked vehicles, but wheeled SPs started to appear in the 1970s. Some SPs have no armor and carry few or no other weapons and ammunition. Armored SPs usually carry a useful ammunition load. Early armored SPs were mostly a "casemate" configuration, in essence an open top armored box offering only limited traverse. However, most modern armored SPs have a full enclosed armored turret, usually giving full traverse for the gun. Many SPs cannot fire without deploying stabilizers or spades, sometimes hydraulic. A few SPs are designed so that the recoil forces of the gun are transferred directly onto the ground through a baseplate. A few towed guns have been given limited self propulsion by means of an auxiliary engine. Two other forms of tactical propulsion were used in the first half of the 20th century: Railways or transporting the equipment by road, as two or three separate loads, with disassembly and re assembly at the beginning and end of the journey. Railway artillery took two forms, railway mountings for heavy and super heavy guns and howitzers and armored trains as "fighting vehicles" armed with light artillery in a direct fire role. Disassembled transport was also used with heavy and super heavy weapons and lasted into the 1950s.
В самоходных установках орудие является неотъемлемой частью транспортного средства. САУ впервые появились во время Первой мировой войны, но получили широкое распространение только во время Второй мировой войны. В основном это гусеничные машины, но колесные САУ начали появляться в 1970-х годах. Некоторые САУ не имеют брони и не несут другого оружия и боеприпасов. Бронированные САУ обычно имеют значительный запас боеприпасов. Ранние бронированные САУ имели конфигурацию "casemate" (каземат), по сути, открытую сверху бронированную коробку с ограниченным углом горизонтального наведения. Однако большинство современных бронированных САУ имеют полностью закрытую бронированную башню, обычно обеспечивающую полный круг обзора и наведения орудия.
The three main types of artillery "gun" are field guns, howitzers, and mortars. During the 20th century, guns and howitzers have steadily merged in artillery use, making a distinction between the terms somewhat meaningless. By the end of the 20th century, true guns with calibers larger than about 60 mm have become very rare in artillery use, the main users being tanks, ships, and a few residual anti aircraft and coastal guns. The term "cannon" is a United States generic term that includes guns, howitzers, and mortars; it is not used in other English speaking armies. The traditional definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum elevation (well less than 45° as opposed to close to or greater than 45°), number of charges (one or more than one charge), and having higher or lower muzzle velocity, sometimes indicated by barrel length. These three criteria give eight possible combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two. However, modern "howitzers" have higher velocities and longer barrels than the equivalent "guns" of the first half of the 20th century. True guns are characterized by long range, having a maximum elevation significantly less than 45°, a high muzzle velocity and hence a relatively long barrel, smooth bore (no rifling) and a single charge. The latter often led to fixed ammunition where the projectile is locked to the cartridge case. There is no generally accepted minimum muzzle velocity or barrel length associated with a gun. thumb|A British 60 pounder gun at full recoil, in action during the Battle of Gallipoli, 1915. Photo by Ernest Brooks. Howitzers can fire at maximum elevations at least close to 45°; elevations up to about 70° are normal for modern howitzers. Howitzers also have a choice of charges, meaning that the same elevation angle of fire will achieve a different range depending on the charge used. They have rifled bores, lower muzzle velocities and shorter barrels than equivalent guns. All this means they can deliver fire with a steep angle of descent. Because of their multi charge capability, their ammunition is mostly separate loading (the projectile and propellant are loaded separately). That leaves six combinations of the three criteria, some of which have been termed gun howitzers. A term first used in the 1930s when howitzers with a relatively high maximum muzzle velocities were introduced, it never became widely accepted, most armies electing to widen the definition of "gun" or "howitzer". By the 1960s, most equipment had maximum elevations up to about 70°, were multi charge, had quite high maximum muzzle velocities and relatively long barrels. Mortars are simpler. The modern mortar originated in World War I and there were several patterns. After that war, most mortars settled on the Stokes pattern, characterized by a short barrel, smooth bore, low muzzle velocity, elevation angle of firing generally greater than 45°, and a very simple and light mounting using a "baseplate" on the ground. The projectile with its integral propelling charge was dropped down the barrel from the muzzle to hit a fixed firing pin. Since that time, a few mortars have become rifled and adopted breech loading. There are other recognized typifying characteristics for artillery. One such characteristic is the type of obturation used to seal the chamber and prevent gases escaping through the breech. This may use a metal cartridge case that also holds the propelling charge, a configuration called "QF" or "quickfiring" by some nations. The alternative does not use a metal cartridge case, the propellant being merely bagged or in combustible cases with the breech itself providing all the sealing. This is called "BL" or "breech loading" by some nations. A second characteristic is the form of propulsion. Modern equipment can either be towed or self propelled (SP). A towed gun fires from the ground and any inherent protection is limited to a gun shield. Towing by horse teams lasted throughout World War II in some armies, but others were fully mechanized with wheeled or tracked gun towing vehicles by the outbreak of that war. The size of a towing vehicle depends on the weight of the equipment and the amount of ammunition it has to carry. A variation of towed is portee, where the vehicle carries the gun which is dismounted for firing. Mortars are often carried this way. A mortar is sometimes carried in an armored vehicle and can either fire from it or be dismounted to fire from the ground. Since the early 1960s it has been possible to carry lighter towed guns and most mortars by helicopter. Even before that, they were parachuted or landed by glider from the time of the first airborne trials in the USSR in the 1930s. In SP equipment, the gun is an integral part of the vehicle that carries it. SPs first appeared during World War I, but did not really develop until World War II. They are mostly tracked vehicles, but wheeled SPs started to appear in the 1970s. Some SPs have no armor and carry few or no other weapons and ammunition. Armored SPs usually carry a useful ammunition load. Early armored SPs were mostly a "casemate" configuration, in essence an open top armored box offering only limited traverse. However, most modern armored SPs have a full enclosed armored turret, usually giving full traverse for the gun. Many SPs cannot fire without deploying stabilizers or spades, sometimes hydraulic. A few SPs are designed so that the recoil forces of the gun are transferred directly onto the ground through a baseplate. A few towed guns have been given limited self propulsion by means of an auxiliary engine. Two other forms of tactical propulsion were used in the first half of the 20th century: Railways or transporting the equipment by road, as two or three separate loads, with disassembly and re assembly at the beginning and end of the journey. Railway artillery took two forms, railway mountings for heavy and super heavy guns and howitzers and armored trains as "fighting vehicles" armed with light artillery in a direct fire role. Disassembled transport was also used with heavy and super heavy weapons and lasted into the 1950s.
Многие САУ не могут вести огонь без установки стабилизаторов или ковшевых опор, иногда гидравлических. Некоторые САУ спроектированы таким образом, что сила отдачи орудия передается непосредственно на землю через опорную плиту.
The three main types of artillery "gun" are field guns, howitzers, and mortars. During the 20th century, guns and howitzers have steadily merged in artillery use, making a distinction between the terms somewhat meaningless. By the end of the 20th century, true guns with calibers larger than about 60 mm have become very rare in artillery use, the main users being tanks, ships, and a few residual anti aircraft and coastal guns. The term "cannon" is a United States generic term that includes guns, howitzers, and mortars; it is not used in other English speaking armies. The traditional definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum elevation (well less than 45° as opposed to close to or greater than 45°), number of charges (one or more than one charge), and having higher or lower muzzle velocity, sometimes indicated by barrel length. These three criteria give eight possible combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two. However, modern "howitzers" have higher velocities and longer barrels than the equivalent "guns" of the first half of the 20th century. True guns are characterized by long range, having a maximum elevation significantly less than 45°, a high muzzle velocity and hence a relatively long barrel, smooth bore (no rifling) and a single charge. The latter often led to fixed ammunition where the projectile is locked to the cartridge case. There is no generally accepted minimum muzzle velocity or barrel length associated with a gun. thumb|A British 60 pounder gun at full recoil, in action during the Battle of Gallipoli, 1915. Photo by Ernest Brooks. Howitzers can fire at maximum elevations at least close to 45°; elevations up to about 70° are normal for modern howitzers. Howitzers also have a choice of charges, meaning that the same elevation angle of fire will achieve a different range depending on the charge used. They have rifled bores, lower muzzle velocities and shorter barrels than equivalent guns. All this means they can deliver fire with a steep angle of descent. Because of their multi charge capability, their ammunition is mostly separate loading (the projectile and propellant are loaded separately). That leaves six combinations of the three criteria, some of which have been termed gun howitzers. A term first used in the 1930s when howitzers with a relatively high maximum muzzle velocities were introduced, it never became widely accepted, most armies electing to widen the definition of "gun" or "howitzer". By the 1960s, most equipment had maximum elevations up to about 70°, were multi charge, had quite high maximum muzzle velocities and relatively long barrels. Mortars are simpler. The modern mortar originated in World War I and there were several patterns. After that war, most mortars settled on the Stokes pattern, characterized by a short barrel, smooth bore, low muzzle velocity, elevation angle of firing generally greater than 45°, and a very simple and light mounting using a "baseplate" on the ground. The projectile with its integral propelling charge was dropped down the barrel from the muzzle to hit a fixed firing pin. Since that time, a few mortars have become rifled and adopted breech loading. There are other recognized typifying characteristics for artillery. One such characteristic is the type of obturation used to seal the chamber and prevent gases escaping through the breech. This may use a metal cartridge case that also holds the propelling charge, a configuration called "QF" or "quickfiring" by some nations. The alternative does not use a metal cartridge case, the propellant being merely bagged or in combustible cases with the breech itself providing all the sealing. This is called "BL" or "breech loading" by some nations. A second characteristic is the form of propulsion. Modern equipment can either be towed or self propelled (SP). A towed gun fires from the ground and any inherent protection is limited to a gun shield. Towing by horse teams lasted throughout World War II in some armies, but others were fully mechanized with wheeled or tracked gun towing vehicles by the outbreak of that war. The size of a towing vehicle depends on the weight of the equipment and the amount of ammunition it has to carry. A variation of towed is portee, where the vehicle carries the gun which is dismounted for firing. Mortars are often carried this way. A mortar is sometimes carried in an armored vehicle and can either fire from it or be dismounted to fire from the ground. Since the early 1960s it has been possible to carry lighter towed guns and most mortars by helicopter. Even before that, they were parachuted or landed by glider from the time of the first airborne trials in the USSR in the 1930s. In SP equipment, the gun is an integral part of the vehicle that carries it. SPs first appeared during World War I, but did not really develop until World War II. They are mostly tracked vehicles, but wheeled SPs started to appear in the 1970s. Some SPs have no armor and carry few or no other weapons and ammunition. Armored SPs usually carry a useful ammunition load. Early armored SPs were mostly a "casemate" configuration, in essence an open top armored box offering only limited traverse. However, most modern armored SPs have a full enclosed armored turret, usually giving full traverse for the gun. Many SPs cannot fire without deploying stabilizers or spades, sometimes hydraulic. A few SPs are designed so that the recoil forces of the gun are transferred directly onto the ground through a baseplate. A few towed guns have been given limited self propulsion by means of an auxiliary engine. Two other forms of tactical propulsion were used in the first half of the 20th century: Railways or transporting the equipment by road, as two or three separate loads, with disassembly and re assembly at the beginning and end of the journey. Railway artillery took two forms, railway mountings for heavy and super heavy guns and howitzers and armored trains as "fighting vehicles" armed with light artillery in a direct fire role. Disassembled transport was also used with heavy and super heavy weapons and lasted into the 1950s.
Некоторые буксируемые пушки получили ограниченную самоходность за счет вспомогательного двигателя.
The three main types of artillery "gun" are field guns, howitzers, and mortars. During the 20th century, guns and howitzers have steadily merged in artillery use, making a distinction between the terms somewhat meaningless. By the end of the 20th century, true guns with calibers larger than about 60 mm have become very rare in artillery use, the main users being tanks, ships, and a few residual anti aircraft and coastal guns. The term "cannon" is a United States generic term that includes guns, howitzers, and mortars; it is not used in other English speaking armies. The traditional definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum elevation (well less than 45° as opposed to close to or greater than 45°), number of charges (one or more than one charge), and having higher or lower muzzle velocity, sometimes indicated by barrel length. These three criteria give eight possible combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two. However, modern "howitzers" have higher velocities and longer barrels than the equivalent "guns" of the first half of the 20th century. True guns are characterized by long range, having a maximum elevation significantly less than 45°, a high muzzle velocity and hence a relatively long barrel, smooth bore (no rifling) and a single charge. The latter often led to fixed ammunition where the projectile is locked to the cartridge case. There is no generally accepted minimum muzzle velocity or barrel length associated with a gun. thumb|A British 60 pounder gun at full recoil, in action during the Battle of Gallipoli, 1915. Photo by Ernest Brooks. Howitzers can fire at maximum elevations at least close to 45°; elevations up to about 70° are normal for modern howitzers. Howitzers also have a choice of charges, meaning that the same elevation angle of fire will achieve a different range depending on the charge used. They have rifled bores, lower muzzle velocities and shorter barrels than equivalent guns. All this means they can deliver fire with a steep angle of descent. Because of their multi charge capability, their ammunition is mostly separate loading (the projectile and propellant are loaded separately). That leaves six combinations of the three criteria, some of which have been termed gun howitzers. A term first used in the 1930s when howitzers with a relatively high maximum muzzle velocities were introduced, it never became widely accepted, most armies electing to widen the definition of "gun" or "howitzer". By the 1960s, most equipment had maximum elevations up to about 70°, were multi charge, had quite high maximum muzzle velocities and relatively long barrels. Mortars are simpler. The modern mortar originated in World War I and there were several patterns. After that war, most mortars settled on the Stokes pattern, characterized by a short barrel, smooth bore, low muzzle velocity, elevation angle of firing generally greater than 45°, and a very simple and light mounting using a "baseplate" on the ground. The projectile with its integral propelling charge was dropped down the barrel from the muzzle to hit a fixed firing pin. Since that time, a few mortars have become rifled and adopted breech loading. There are other recognized typifying characteristics for artillery. One such characteristic is the type of obturation used to seal the chamber and prevent gases escaping through the breech. This may use a metal cartridge case that also holds the propelling charge, a configuration called "QF" or "quickfiring" by some nations. The alternative does not use a metal cartridge case, the propellant being merely bagged or in combustible cases with the breech itself providing all the sealing. This is called "BL" or "breech loading" by some nations. A second characteristic is the form of propulsion. Modern equipment can either be towed or self propelled (SP). A towed gun fires from the ground and any inherent protection is limited to a gun shield. Towing by horse teams lasted throughout World War II in some armies, but others were fully mechanized with wheeled or tracked gun towing vehicles by the outbreak of that war. The size of a towing vehicle depends on the weight of the equipment and the amount of ammunition it has to carry. A variation of towed is portee, where the vehicle carries the gun which is dismounted for firing. Mortars are often carried this way. A mortar is sometimes carried in an armored vehicle and can either fire from it or be dismounted to fire from the ground. Since the early 1960s it has been possible to carry lighter towed guns and most mortars by helicopter. Even before that, they were parachuted or landed by glider from the time of the first airborne trials in the USSR in the 1930s. In SP equipment, the gun is an integral part of the vehicle that carries it. SPs first appeared during World War I, but did not really develop until World War II. They are mostly tracked vehicles, but wheeled SPs started to appear in the 1970s. Some SPs have no armor and carry few or no other weapons and ammunition. Armored SPs usually carry a useful ammunition load. Early armored SPs were mostly a "casemate" configuration, in essence an open top armored box offering only limited traverse. However, most modern armored SPs have a full enclosed armored turret, usually giving full traverse for the gun. Many SPs cannot fire without deploying stabilizers or spades, sometimes hydraulic. A few SPs are designed so that the recoil forces of the gun are transferred directly onto the ground through a baseplate. A few towed guns have been given limited self propulsion by means of an auxiliary engine. Two other forms of tactical propulsion were used in the first half of the 20th century: Railways or transporting the equipment by road, as two or three separate loads, with disassembly and re assembly at the beginning and end of the journey. Railway artillery took two forms, railway mountings for heavy and super heavy guns and howitzers and armored trains as "fighting vehicles" armed with light artillery in a direct fire role. Disassembled transport was also used with heavy and super heavy weapons and lasted into the 1950s.
Две другие формы тактической тяги использовались в первой половине XX века: железнодорожный транспорт или транспортировка оборудования по дорогам в виде двух или трех отдельных грузов с разборкой и сборкой в начале и конце пути. Железнодорожная артиллерия имела две формы: железнодорожные лафеты для тяжелых и сверхтяжелых пушек и гаубиц, а также бронепоезда в качестве "боевых машин", вооруженных легкой артиллерией для стрельбы прямой наводкой. Разборка и транспортировка также использовались с тяжелым и сверхтяжелым оружием и продолжались до 1950-х годов.
The three main types of artillery "gun" are field guns, howitzers, and mortars. During the 20th century, guns and howitzers have steadily merged in artillery use, making a distinction between the terms somewhat meaningless. By the end of the 20th century, true guns with calibers larger than about 60 mm have become very rare in artillery use, the main users being tanks, ships, and a few residual anti aircraft and coastal guns. The term "cannon" is a United States generic term that includes guns, howitzers, and mortars; it is not used in other English speaking armies. The traditional definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum elevation (well less than 45° as opposed to close to or greater than 45°), number of charges (one or more than one charge), and having higher or lower muzzle velocity, sometimes indicated by barrel length. These three criteria give eight possible combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two. However, modern "howitzers" have higher velocities and longer barrels than the equivalent "guns" of the first half of the 20th century. True guns are characterized by long range, having a maximum elevation significantly less than 45°, a high muzzle velocity and hence a relatively long barrel, smooth bore (no rifling) and a single charge. The latter often led to fixed ammunition where the projectile is locked to the cartridge case. There is no generally accepted minimum muzzle velocity or barrel length associated with a gun. thumb|A British 60 pounder gun at full recoil, in action during the Battle of Gallipoli, 1915. Photo by Ernest Brooks. Howitzers can fire at maximum elevations at least close to 45°; elevations up to about 70° are normal for modern howitzers. Howitzers also have a choice of charges, meaning that the same elevation angle of fire will achieve a different range depending on the charge used. They have rifled bores, lower muzzle velocities and shorter barrels than equivalent guns. All this means they can deliver fire with a steep angle of descent. Because of their multi charge capability, their ammunition is mostly separate loading (the projectile and propellant are loaded separately). That leaves six combinations of the three criteria, some of which have been termed gun howitzers. A term first used in the 1930s when howitzers with a relatively high maximum muzzle velocities were introduced, it never became widely accepted, most armies electing to widen the definition of "gun" or "howitzer". By the 1960s, most equipment had maximum elevations up to about 70°, were multi charge, had quite high maximum muzzle velocities and relatively long barrels. Mortars are simpler. The modern mortar originated in World War I and there were several patterns. After that war, most mortars settled on the Stokes pattern, characterized by a short barrel, smooth bore, low muzzle velocity, elevation angle of firing generally greater than 45°, and a very simple and light mounting using a "baseplate" on the ground. The projectile with its integral propelling charge was dropped down the barrel from the muzzle to hit a fixed firing pin. Since that time, a few mortars have become rifled and adopted breech loading. There are other recognized typifying characteristics for artillery. One such characteristic is the type of obturation used to seal the chamber and prevent gases escaping through the breech. This may use a metal cartridge case that also holds the propelling charge, a configuration called "QF" or "quickfiring" by some nations. The alternative does not use a metal cartridge case, the propellant being merely bagged or in combustible cases with the breech itself providing all the sealing. This is called "BL" or "breech loading" by some nations. A second characteristic is the form of propulsion. Modern equipment can either be towed or self propelled (SP). A towed gun fires from the ground and any inherent protection is limited to a gun shield. Towing by horse teams lasted throughout World War II in some armies, but others were fully mechanized with wheeled or tracked gun towing vehicles by the outbreak of that war. The size of a towing vehicle depends on the weight of the equipment and the amount of ammunition it has to carry. A variation of towed is portee, where the vehicle carries the gun which is dismounted for firing. Mortars are often carried this way. A mortar is sometimes carried in an armored vehicle and can either fire from it or be dismounted to fire from the ground. Since the early 1960s it has been possible to carry lighter towed guns and most mortars by helicopter. Even before that, they were parachuted or landed by glider from the time of the first airborne trials in the USSR in the 1930s. In SP equipment, the gun is an integral part of the vehicle that carries it. SPs first appeared during World War I, but did not really develop until World War II. They are mostly tracked vehicles, but wheeled SPs started to appear in the 1970s. Some SPs have no armor and carry few or no other weapons and ammunition. Armored SPs usually carry a useful ammunition load. Early armored SPs were mostly a "casemate" configuration, in essence an open top armored box offering only limited traverse. However, most modern armored SPs have a full enclosed armored turret, usually giving full traverse for the gun. Many SPs cannot fire without deploying stabilizers or spades, sometimes hydraulic. A few SPs are designed so that the recoil forces of the gun are transferred directly onto the ground through a baseplate. A few towed guns have been given limited self propulsion by means of an auxiliary engine. Two other forms of tactical propulsion were used in the first half of the 20th century: Railways or transporting the equipment by road, as two or three separate loads, with disassembly and re assembly at the beginning and end of the journey. Railway artillery took two forms, railway mountings for heavy and super heavy guns and howitzers and armored trains as "fighting vehicles" armed with light artillery in a direct fire role. Disassembled transport was also used with heavy and super heavy weapons and lasted into the 1950s.
Категории калибров
Третья форма артиллерийской классификации – разделение на "легкую", "среднюю", "тяжелую" и другие подобные категории. Она, по всей видимости, появилась в период Первой мировой войны, которая привела к созданию огромного разнообразия артиллерии различных калибров, и поэтому возникла потребность в простой категоризации. Некоторые армии определяли эти категории по диапазонам калибров. Разные диапазоны применялись к различным типам вооружений – полевым пушкам, минометам, зенитным орудиям и береговой артиллерии.
A third form of artillery typing is to classify it as "light", "medium", "heavy" and various other terms. It appears to have been introduced in World War I, which spawned a very wide array of artillery in all sorts of sizes so a simple categorical system was needed. Some armies defined these categories by bands of calibers. Different bands were used for different types of weapons—field guns, mortars, anti aircraft guns and coastal guns.
Огонь от батареи
Современный контрбатарейный огонь был разработан в Первой мировой войне с целью поражения вражеской артиллерии. Обычно такой огонь использовался для подавления вражеских батарей, когда они мешали или собирались помешать действиям своих войск (например, для предотвращения оборонительного артиллерийского огня противника перед наступлением) или для систематического уничтожения вражеских орудий. В Первой мировой войне последнее требовало воздушного наблюдения. Первый косвенный контрбатарейный огонь был осуществлен в мае 1900 года наблюдателем в воздушном шаре. Вражескую артиллерию можно обнаружить двумя способами: либо прямым наблюдением за орудиями с воздуха, либо наземными наблюдателями (включая специализированную разведку), либо по признакам стрельбы. Это включает в себя радары, отслеживающие снаряды в полете для определения места их запуска, звукометрию, обнаруживающую выстрелы и определяющую позицию орудий по парам микрофонов или перекрестным наблюдениям за вспышками орудий с использованием человеческих наблюдателей или оптоэлектронных устройств, хотя широкое распространение "беспламенных" порохов ограничило эффективность последнего. После обнаружения вражеских батарей они могут быть немедленно обстреляны ответным огнем или позже, в оптимальное время, в зависимости от тактической обстановки и политики контрбатарейной борьбы. Воздушный удар – еще один вариант. В некоторых случаях задача состоит в том, чтобы обнаружить все активные вражеские батареи для атаки контрбатарейным огнем в подходящий момент в соответствии с планом, разработанным артиллерийской разведкой. В других случаях контрбатарейный огонь может вестись всякий раз, когда батарея обнаружена с достаточной точностью. Современная система целеуказания для контрбатарейного огня использует беспилотные летательные аппараты, контрбатарейные радары, наземную разведку и звукометрию. Корректировка контрбатарейного огня может осуществляться некоторыми из этих систем, например, оператор беспилотного летательного аппарата может "следить" за батареей, если она перемещается. К защитным мерам батарей относятся частая смена позиций или строительство оборонительных земляных сооружений, примером крайности являются туннели, используемые Северной Кореей. К мерам противодействия относятся противовоздушная оборона от самолетов и физическое и электронное подавление контрбатарейных радаров. thumb|upright=0.9|right|Современные артиллерийские боеприпасы. Калибр 155 мм, используемый PzH 2000.
Modern counter battery fire developed in World War I, with the objective of defeating the enemy's artillery. Typically such fire was used to suppress enemy batteries when they were or were about to interfere with the activities of friendly forces (such as to prevent enemy defensive artillery fire against an impending attack) or to systematically destroy enemy guns. In World War I the latter required air observation. The first indirect counter battery fire was in May 1900 by an observer in a balloon. Enemy artillery can be detected in two ways, either by direct observation of the guns from the air or by ground observers (including specialist reconnaissance), or from their firing signatures. This includes radars tracking the shells in flight to determine their place of origin, sound ranging detecting guns firing and resecting their position from pairs of microphones or cross observation of gun flashes using observation by human observers or opto electronic devices, although the widespread adoption of 'flashless' propellant limited the effectiveness of the latter. Once hostile batteries have been detected they may be engaged immediately by friendly artillery or later at an optimum time, depending on the tactical situation and the counter battery policy. Air strike is another option. In some situations the task is to locate all active enemy batteries for attack using a counter battery fire at the appropriate moment in accordance with a plan developed by artillery intelligence staff. In other situations counter battery fire may occur whenever a battery is located with sufficient accuracy. Modern counter battery target acquisition uses unmanned aircraft, counter battery radar, ground reconnaissance and sound ranging. Counter battery fire may be adjusted by some of the systems, for example the operator of an unmanned aircraft can 'follow' a battery if it moves. Defensive measures by batteries include frequently changing position or constructing defensive earthworks, the tunnels used by North Korea being an extreme example. Counter measures include air defence against aircraft and attacking counter battery radars physically and electronically. thumb|upright=0.9|right|Modern artillery ammunition. Caliber 155 mm as used by the PzH 2000
Полевая артиллерия
"Полевая артиллерийская команда" – термин, используемый в США, и следующее описание и терминология относятся к американской армии. Другие армии в целом похожи, но имеют значительные отличия в деталях. Современная полевая артиллерия (после Первой мировой войны) состоит из трех основных частей: наблюдателя (ФО), центра управления огнем (FDC) и самих орудий. Наблюдатель обнаруживает цель, используя такие средства, как бинокль, лазерный дальномер, указатели целей и передает запросы на огонь по радиосвязи или передает данные через портативный компьютер по зашифрованному цифровому радиоканалу, защищенному от помех с помощью автоматизированного переключения частот. Менее известной частью команды является группа артиллерийской разведки (FAS), которая определяет "линию орудий" для пушек. В настоящее время большинство артиллерийских батальонов используют "круговой визир", что обеспечивает более быструю подготовку к стрельбе и повышенную мобильность. Группы FAS по-прежнему используются для контроля и проверки, и если у батареи орудий возникают проблемы с "круговым визиром", группа FAS выполнит эту задачу за них. ФО может напрямую связываться с FDC батареи, которого обычно один на батарею из 4–8 орудий. В противном случае несколько ФО взаимодействуют с вышестоящим FDC, например, на уровне батальона, который определяет приоритетность целей и распределяет огонь между отдельными батареями по мере необходимости для поражения целей, обнаруженных ФО, или для выполнения заранее запланированных огневых задач. FDC батареи вычисляет данные для стрельбы – тип боеприпаса, заряд пороха, настройки взрывателя, направление на цель, угол возвышения, орудие, которое произведет корректировочные выстрелы, и количество снарядов, которые должны быть выпущены каждым орудием после точного определения местоположения цели. Традиционно эти данные передаются по радиосвязи или проводной линии связи в виде предупредительного приказа орудиям, за которым следуют приказы, определяющие тип боеприпаса и настройки взрывателя, направление и угол возвышения, необходимые для поражения цели, а также метод корректировки огня или приказ на открытие огня на поражение (FFE). Однако в более современных артиллерийских подразделениях эти данные передаются по цифровому радиоканалу. Другие элементы полевой артиллерийской команды включают метеорологический анализ для определения температуры, влажности и давления воздуха, а также направления и скорости ветра на различных высотах. Также используется радиолокация для определения местоположения вражеской артиллерии и минометных батарей, а также для точного определения точек падения снарядов, выпущенных батареей, и сравнения этих данных с ожидаемыми значениями для вычисления поправок, позволяющих в будущем вести огонь с большей точностью.
'Field Artillery Team' is a US term and the following description and terminology applies to the US, other armies are broadly similar but differ in significant details. Modern field artillery (post–World War I) has three distinct parts: the Forward Observer (FO), the Fire Direction Center (FDC) and the actual guns themselves. The forward observer observes the target using tools such as binoculars, laser rangefinders, designators and call back fire missions on his radio, or relays the data through a portable computer via an encrypted digital radio connection protected from jamming by computerized frequency hopping. A lesser known part of the team is the FAS or Field Artillery Survey team which sets up the "Gun Line" for the cannons. Today most artillery battalions use a(n) "Aiming Circle" which allows for faster setup and more mobility. FAS teams are still used for checks and balances purposes and if a gun battery has issues with the "Aiming Circle" a FAS team will do it for them. The FO can communicate directly with the battery FDC, of which there is one per each battery of 4–8 guns. Otherwise the several FOs communicate with a higher FDC such as at a Battalion level, and the higher FDC prioritizes the targets and allocates fires to individual batteries as needed to engage the targets that are spotted by the FOs or to perform preplanned fires. The Battery FDC computes firing data—ammunition to be used, powder charge, fuse settings, the direction to the target, and the quadrant elevation to be fired at to reach the target, what gun will fire any rounds needed for adjusting on the target, and the number of rounds to be fired on the target by each gun once the target has been accurately located—to the guns. Traditionally this data is relayed via radio or wire communications as a warning order to the guns, followed by orders specifying the type of ammunition and fuse setting, direction, and the elevation needed to reach the target, and the method of adjustment or orders for fire for effect (FFE). However, in more advanced artillery units, this data is relayed through a digital radio link. Other parts of the field artillery team include meteorological analysis to determine the temperature, humidity and pressure of the air and wind direction and speed at different altitudes. Also radar is used both for determining the location of enemy artillery and mortar batteries and to determine the precise actual strike points of rounds fired by battery and comparing that location with what was expected to compute a registration allowing future rounds to be fired with much greater accuracy.
Время по цели
Техника, получившая название «время на цель» (TOT), была разработана британской армией в Северной Африке в конце 1941 и начале 1942 года, в частности для контрбатарейного огня и поражения скоплений войск, и быстро завоевала популярность. Она основывалась на сигналах точного времени, передаваемых BBC, чтобы офицеры могли синхронизировать свои часы с точностью до секунды, что позволяло избежать использования военных радиосетей и риска потери внезапности, а также необходимости развертывания полевых телефонных сетей в пустыне. При использовании этой техники время полета снаряда от каждой огневой позиции (батареи или взвода) до цели определялось по дальности или таблицам стрельбы, либо с помощью вычислительного устройства, и каждая огневая позиция вычитала свое время полета из заданного времени на цель (TOT), чтобы определить момент открытия огня. Одновременный приказ на открытие огня подавался всем орудиям огневой позиции в нужный момент. Когда каждая огневая позиция открывала огонь в свое расчетное время, первые снаряды всех орудий достигали цели практически одновременно. Это особенно эффективно в сочетании с методами, позволяющими вести огонь на поражение без предварительной корректировки.
A technique called time on target (TOT) was developed by the British Army in North Africa at the end of 1941 and early 1942 particularly for counter battery fire and other concentrations, it proved very popular. It relied on BBC time signals to enable officers to synchronize their watches to the second because this avoided the need to use military radio networks and the possibility of losing surprise, and the need for field telephone networks in the desert. With this technique the time of flight from each fire unit (battery or troop) to the target is taken from the range or firing tables, or the computer and each engaging fire unit subtracts its time of flight from the TOT to determine the time to fire. An executive order to fire is given to all guns in the fire unit at the correct moment to fire. When each fire unit fires their rounds at their individual firing time all the opening rounds will reach the target area almost simultaneously. This is especially effective when combined with techniques that allow fires for effect to be made without preliminary adjusting fires.
Одновременное столкновение с несколькими ударами
Иллюстрация различных траекторий, используемых в MRSI: для любой начальной скорости снаряда существует более крутая (> 45°, сплошная линия) и более пологая (<45°, пунктирная линия) траектория. На этих различных траекториях снаряды имеют разное время полета. Множественный одновременный удар (MRSI) – это современная версия более ранней концепции «время на цель». MRSI – это когда одно орудие производит несколько выстрелов, так, чтобы все снаряды одновременно достигли одной и той же цели. Это возможно, поскольку для достижения любой заданной цели существует более одной траектории полета снаряда. Обычно одна траектория находится под углом менее 45 градусов к горизонту, а другая – более 45 градусов. Используя различные размеры метательных зарядов для каждого снаряда, можно использовать более двух траекторий. Более высокие траектории приводят к тому, что снаряды поднимаются выше в воздух, и им требуется больше времени для достижения цели. Если первые залпы производятся по более высоким траекториям (начиная с снаряда с максимальным зарядом и уменьшая его), а последующие – по более низким, то при правильной синхронизации все снаряды достигнут цели одновременно. Это полезно, поскольку большое количество снарядов может поразить цель без предупреждения. При традиционных методах стрельбы у цели может быть время (в зависимости от времени, необходимого для перезарядки и повторного выстрела) укрыться между залпами. Однако орудия, способные к ведению огня очередями, могут доставить несколько снарядов за несколько секунд, если для каждого выстрела используются одни и те же данные о стрельбе. Если несколько орудий ведут огонь по одной цели, они могут использовать процедуру «время на цель», чтобы все снаряды достигли цели одновременно. Для реализации MRSI необходимо выполнение нескольких условий. Во-первых, требуется орудие с высокой скорострельностью. Во-вторых, должна быть возможность использовать метательные заряды разного размера. В-третьих, необходим компьютер управления огнем, способный вычислять залпы MRSI, формировать данные о стрельбе, передавать их каждому орудию и представлять командиру орудия в правильной последовательности. Количество снарядов, которые могут быть доставлены в рамках MRSI, зависит главным образом от дальности до цели и скорострельности. Чтобы обеспечить поражение максимального количества снарядов, цель должна находиться в пределах досягаемости минимального метательного заряда. Примерами орудий, скорострельность которых делает их подходящими для MRSI, являются британская AS 90, южноафриканская Denel G6 52 (способная одновременно поражать шесть снарядов на цели на расстоянии не менее), немецкая Panzerhaubitze 2000 (способная одновременно поражать пять снарядов на цели на расстоянии не менее), словацкая 155-мм SpGH ZUZANA model 2000 и южнокорейская K9 Thunder. Проект Archer (разработанный BAE Systems Bofors в Швеции) представляет собой 155-мм гаубицу на колесном шасси, которая, как утверждается, способна одновременно доставлять до шести снарядов на цель из одного орудия. 120-мм двуствольная минометная система AMOS, совместно разработанная Hägglunds (Швеция) и Patria (Финляндия), способна к одновременному MRSI 7+7 снарядов. Американская программа Crusader (в настоящее время отменена) должна была обладать возможностями MRSI. Неизвестно, сколько компьютеров управления огнем обладают необходимыми возможностями. Двухснарядные залпы MRSI были популярной демонстрацией артиллерии в 1960-х годах, когда хорошо обученные расчеты могли продемонстрировать свои навыки зрителям.
thumb|Illustration of different trajectories used in MRSI: For any muzzle velocity there is a steeper (> 45°, solid line) and a lower (<45°, dashed line) trajectory. On these different trajectories, the shells have different flight times. Multiple round simultaneous impact (MRSI) is a modern version of the earlier time on target concept. MRSI is when a single gun fires multiple shells so all arrive at the same target simultaneously. This is possible because there is more than one trajectory for a round to fly to any given target. Typically one is below 45 degrees from horizontal and the other is above it, and by using different sized propellant charges with each shell, it is possible to utilize more than two trajectories. Because the higher trajectories cause the shells to arc higher into the air, they take longer to reach the target. If shells are fired on higher trajectories for initial volleys (starting with the shell with the most propellant and working down) and later volleys are fired on the lower trajectories, with the correct timing the shells will all arrive at the same target simultaneously. This is useful because many more shells can land on the target with no warning. With traditional methods of firing, the target area may have time (however long it takes to reload and re fire the guns) to take cover between volleys. However, guns capable of burst fire can deliver multiple rounds in a few seconds if they use the same firing data for each, and if guns in more than one location are firing on one target they can use Time on Target procedures so that all their shells arrive at the same time and target. MRSI has a few prerequisites. The first is guns with a high rate of fire. The second is the ability to use different sized propellant charges. Third is a fire control computer that has the ability to compute MRSI volleys and the capability to produce firing data, sent to each gun, and then presented to the gun commander in the correct order. The number of rounds that can be delivered in MRSI depends primarily on the range to the target and the rate of fire. To allow the most shells to reach the target, the target has to be in range of the lowest propellant charge. Examples of guns with a rate of fire that makes them suitable for MRSI includes UK's AS 90, South Africa's Denel G6 52 (which can land six rounds simultaneously at targets at least away), Germany's Panzerhaubitze 2000 (which can land five rounds simultaneously at targets at least away), Slovakia's 155 mm SpGH ZUZANA model 2000, and K9 Thunder. The Archer project (developed by BAE Systems Bofors in Sweden) is a 155 mm howitzer on a wheeled chassis which is claimed to be able to deliver up to six shells on target simultaneously from the same gun. The 120 mm twin barrel AMOS mortar system, joint developed by Hägglunds (Sweden) and Patria (Finland), is capable of 7 + 7 shells MRSI. The United States Crusader program (now cancelled) was slated to have MRSI capability. It is unclear how many fire control computers have the necessary capabilities. Two round MRSI firings were a popular artillery demonstration in the 1960s, where well trained detachments could show off their skills for spectators.
Воздушный разрыв
Разрушительное воздействие артиллерийского обстрела может быть усилено, если часть или все снаряды настроены на воздушный подрыв, то есть взрываются в воздухе над целью, а не при ударе о поверхность. Это достигается либо с помощью временных взрывателей, либо взрывателей с радиокоррекцией. Временные взрыватели используют точный таймер для подрыва снаряда после установленной задержки. Эта техника сложна, и незначительные отклонения в работе взрывателя могут привести к тому, что снаряд взорвется слишком высоко и окажется неэффективным, или же ударится о землю вместо подрыва в воздухе. С декабря 1944 года (Битва за Выступ) стали доступны артиллерийские снаряды с взрывателями с радиокоррекцией, которые исключают необходимость в расчетах. Они используют миниатюрный маломощный радиолокационный передатчик во взрывателе для обнаружения земли и подрыва снаряда на заданной высоте над ней. Отражение слабого радиолокационного сигнала замыкает электрическую цепь во взрывателе, что приводит к детонации снаряда. Сам взрыватель с радиокоррекцией был разработан британцами для повышения эффективности зенитной артиллерии. Это очень эффективная тактика против пехоты и легкобронированной техники, поскольку она разбрасывает осколки снаряда на большей площади и предотвращает их блокировку рельефом местности или окопами, не имеющими надежного укрытия сверху. В сочетании с тактиками TOT или MRSI, которые не дают предупреждения о приближающихся снарядах, эти снаряды особенно разрушительны, так как многие вражеские солдаты, скорее всего, окажутся на открытой местности; особенно это вероятно, если атака будет направлена на место сбора войск или на движущиеся подразделения, а не на укрепленную тактическую позицию.
The destructiveness of artillery bombardments can be enhanced when some or all of the shells are set for airburst, meaning that they explode in the air above the target instead of upon impact. This can be accomplished either through time fuzes or proximity fuzes. Time fuzes use a precise timer to detonate the shell after a preset delay. This technique is tricky and slight variations in the functioning of the fuze can cause it to explode too high and be ineffective, or to strike the ground instead of exploding above it. Since December 1944 (Battle of the Bulge), proximity fuzed artillery shells have been available that take the guesswork out of this process. These employ a miniature, low powered radar transmitter in the fuze to detect the ground and explode them at a predetermined height above it. The return of the weak radar signal completes an electrical circuit in the fuze which explodes the shell. The proximity fuze itself was developed by the British to increase the effectiveness of anti aircraft warfare. This is a very effective tactic against infantry and light vehicles, because it scatters the fragmentation of the shell over a larger area and prevents it from being blocked by terrain or entrenchments that do not include some form of robust overhead cover. Combined with TOT or MRSI tactics that give no warning of the incoming rounds, these rounds are especially devastating because many enemy soldiers are likely to be caught in the open; even more so if the attack is launched against an assembly area or troops moving in the open rather than a unit in an entrenched tactical position.