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Telescope designed to observe remote objects by detecting X rays

An X ray telescope (XRT) is a telescope that is designed to observe remote objects in the X ray spectrum. X rays are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, so instruments to detect X rays must be taken to high altitude by balloons, sounding rockets, and satellites. The basic elements of the telescope are the optics (focusing or collimating), that collects the radiation entering the telescope, and the detector, on which the radiation is collected and measured. A variety of different designs and technologies have been used for these elements. Many X ray telescopes on satellites are compounded of multiple small detector telescope systems whose capabilities add up or complement each other, and additional fixed or removable elements (filters, spectrometers) that add functionalities to the instrument.

X ray telescopes were first used for astronomy to observe the Sun, which was the only source in the sky bright enough in X rays for those early telescopes to detect. Because the Sun is so bright in X rays, early X ray telescopes could use a small focusing element and the X rays would be detected with photographic film. The first X ray picture of the Sun from a rocket borne telescope was taken by John V. Lindsay of the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and collaborators in 1963. The first orbiting X ray telescope flew on Skylab in the early 1970s and recorded more than 35,000 full disk images of the Sun over a 9 month period. First specialised X ray satellite, Uhuru, was launched by NASA in 1970. It detected 339 X ray sources in its 2.5 year lifetime. The Einstein Observatory, launched in 1978, was the first imaging X ray observatory. It obtained high resolution X ray images in the energy range from 0.1 to 4 keV of stars of all types, supernova remnants, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies. Another large project was ROSAT (active from 1990 to 1999), which was a heavy X ray space observatory with focusing X ray optics, and European EXOSAT. It was launched into orbit on June 27, 2009, at 22:51 GMT from Space Launch Complex 37B at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. The Chinese Hard X ray Modulation Telescope was launched on June 15, 2017 to observe black holes, neutron stars, active galactic nuclei and other phenomena based on their X ray and gamma ray emissions. The Lobster Eye X ray Satellite was launched on 25 July 2020 by CNSA making it is the first in orbit telescope to utilize the lobster eye imaging technology of ultra large field of view imaging to search for dark matter signals in the x ray energy range. Lobster Eye Imager for Astronomy was launched on 27 July 2022 as a technology demonstrator for Einstein Probe, launched on January 9, 2024, dedicated to time domain high energy astrophysics. The Space Variable Objects Monitor observatory scheduled for launch in June 2024 will be directed at studying the explosions of massive stars and analysis of gamma ray bursts. A soft X ray solar imaging telescope is on board the GOES 13 weather satellite launched using a Delta IV from Cape Canaveral LC37B on May 24, 2006. However, there have been no GOES 13 SXI images since December 2006. The Russian German Spektr RG carries the eROSITA telescope array as well as the ART XC telescope. It was launched by Roscosmos on 13 July 2019 from Baikonur and began collecting data in October 2019.

The most common methods used in X ray optics are grazing incidence mirrors and collimated apertures. Only three geometries that use grazing incidence reflection of X rays to produce X ray images are known: Wolter system, Kirkpatrick Baez system, and lobster eye optics.

X rays has a huge span in wavelength (~8 nm 8 pm), frequency (~50 PHz 50 EHz) and energy (~0.12 120 keV). In terms of temperature, 1 eV = 11,604 K. Thus X rays (0.12 to 120 keV) correspond to 1.39 × 106 to 1.39 × 109 K. From 10 to 0.1 nanometers (nm) (about 0.12 to 12 keV) they are classified as soft X rays, and from 0.1 nm to 0.01 nm (about 12 to 120 keV) as hard X rays. Closer to the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum is the ultraviolet. The draft ISO standard on determining solar irradiances (ISO DIS 21348) describes the ultraviolet as ranging from ~10 nm to ~400 nm. That portion closest to X rays is often referred to as the "extreme ultraviolet" (EUV or XUV). When an EUV photon is absorbed, photoelectrons and secondary electrons are generated by ionization, much like what happens when X rays or electron beams are absorbed by matter. The distinction between X rays and gamma rays has changed in recent decades. Originally, the electromagnetic radiation emitted by X ray tubes had a longer wavelength than the radiation emitted by radioactive nuclei (gamma rays). So older literature distinguished between X and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10−11 m, defined as gamma rays. However, as shorter wavelength continuous spectrum "X ray" sources such as linear accelerators and longer wavelength "gamma ray" emitters were discovered, the wavelength bands largely overlapped. The two types of radiation are now usually distinguished by their origin: X rays are emitted by electrons outside the nucleus, while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus. Although the more energetic X rays, photons with an energy greater than 30 keV (4,800 aJ), can penetrate the Earth's atmosphere at least for distances of a few meters, the Earth's atmosphere is thick enough that virtually none are able to penetrate from outer space all the way to the Earth's surface. X rays in the 0.5 to 5 keV (80 to 800 aJ) range, where most celestial sources give off the bulk of their energy, can be stopped by a few sheets of paper; 90% of the photons in a beam of 3 keV (480 aJ) X rays are absorbed by traveling through just 10 cm of air.

A proportional counter is a type of gaseous ionization detector that counts particles of ionizing radiation and measures their energy. It works on the same principle as the Geiger Müller counter, but uses a lower operating voltage. All X ray proportional counters consist of a windowed gas cell. Often this cell is subdivided into a number of low and high electric field regions by some arrangement of electrodes. Proportional counters were used on EXOSAT, on the US portion of the Apollo–Soyuz mission (July 1975), and on French TOURNESOL instrument.

Monitoring generally means to be aware of the state of a system. A device that displays or sends a signal for displaying X ray output from an X ray generating source so as to be aware of the state of the source is referred to as an X ray monitor in space applications. On Apollo 15 in orbit above the Moon, for example, an X ray monitor was used to follow the possible variation in solar X ray intensity and spectral shape while mapping the lunar surface with respect to its chemical composition due to the production of secondary X rays. The X ray monitor of Solwind, designated NRL 608 or XMON, was a collaboration between the Naval Research Laboratory and Los Alamos National Laboratory. The monitor consisted of 2 collimated argon proportional counters.

A scintillator is a material which exhibits the property of luminescence when excited by ionizing radiation. Luminescent materials, when struck by an incoming particle, such as an X ray photon, absorb its energy and scintillate, i. e. reemit the absorbed energy in the form of a small flash of light, typically in the visible range. The scintillation X ray detector were used on Vela 5A and its twin Vela 5B; the X ray telescope onboard OSO 4 consisted of a single thin NaI(Tl) scintillation crystal plus phototube assembly enclosed in a CsI(Tl) anti coincidence shield. OSO 5 carried a CsI crystal scintillator. The central crystal was 0.635 cm thick, had a sensitive area of 70 cm2, and was viewed from behind by a pair of photomultiplier tubes. The PHEBUS had two independent detectors, each detector consisted of a bismuth germinate (BGO) crystal 78 mm in diameter by 120 mm thick. SAS 3 carried modulation collimators (2 11 keV) and Slat and Tube collimators (1 up to 60keV). On board the Granat Observatory were four WATCH instruments that could localize bright sources in the 6 to 180 keV range to within 0.5° using a Rotation Modulation Collimator. Taken together, the instruments' three fields of view covered approximately 75% of the sky. The Reuven Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI), Explorer 81, images solar flares from soft X rays to gamma rays (~3 keV to ~20 MeV). Its imaging capability is based on a Fourier transform technique using a set of 9 Rotational Modulation Collimators.

OSO 8 had on board a Graphite Crystal X ray Spectrometer, with energy range of 2 8 keV, FOV 3°. The Granat ART S X ray spectrometer covered the energy range 3 to 100 keV, FOV 2° × 2°. The instrument consisted of four detectors based on spectroscopic MWPCs, making an effective area of 2,400 cm2 at 10 keV and 800 cm2 at 100 keV. The time resolution was 200 microseconds. The X ray spectrometer aboard ISEE 3 was designed to study both solar flares and cosmic gamma ray bursts over the energy range 5 228 keV. The experiment consisted of 2 cylindrical X ray detectors: a Xenon filled proportional counter covering 5 14 keV, and a NaI(Tl) scintillator covering 12 1250 keV.

Most existing X ray telescopes use CCD detectors, similar to those in visible light cameras. In visible light, a single photon can produce a single electron of charge in a pixel, and an image is built up by accumulating many such charges from many photons during the exposure time. When an X ray photon hits a CCD, it produces enough charge (hundreds to thousands of electrons, proportional to its energy) that the individual X rays have their energies measured on read out.

Microcalorimeters can only detect X rays one photon at a time (but can measure the energy of each).

Transition edge sensors are the next step in microcalorimetry. In essence they are super conducting metals kept as close as possible to their transition temperature. This is the temperature at which these metals become super conductors and their resistance drops to zero. These transition temperatures are usually just a few degrees above absolute zero (usually less than 10 K).