1915 Galveston hurricane

Category 4 Atlantic hurricane

The 1915 Galveston hurricane was a tropical cyclone that caused extensive damage in the Galveston area in August 1915. Widespread damage was also documented throughout its path across the Caribbean Sea and the interior of the United States. Due to similarities in strength and trajectory, the storm drew comparisons with the deadly 1900 Galveston hurricane. While the newly completed Galveston Seawall mitigated a similar scale disaster for Galveston, numerous fatalities occurred along unprotected stretches of the Texas coast due to the storm's 16.2 feet (5 m) storm surge. Overall, the major hurricane inflicted at least $30 million in damage (equivalent to $30.0 in 1915 is equivalent to about <calculated amount> in recent years million in ) and killed 403–405 people. A demographic normalization of landfalling storms suggested that an equivalent storm in 2005 would cause $68.0 billion in damage in the United States. Reanalyses of the Atlantic hurricane database concluded the storm formed near Cabo Verde on August 5, gradually strengthening into a hurricane as it tracked westward. However, it remained undetected by the United States Weather Bureau until it passed over the Lesser Antilles as a hurricane on August 10. The storm inflicted damage to shipping on the islands and flooded docks and streets in Martinique and Dominica. Two days later, the intensifying storm passed north of Jamaica, bringing winds to the northern coast. Significant losses were reported to the island's banana, beet, and sugar plantations, while coastal surge washed out roads and destroyed wharves; fifteen people in Jamaica were killed. Most houses and coconut trees were destroyed on Cayman Brac west of Jamaica, and substantial damage occurred across the Cayman Islands. On August 14, the hurricane clipped the western extremity of Cuba, killing fourteen. The storm's winds were estimated at 145 mph (230 km/h)—a Category 4 hurricane on the modern day Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale; this was ultimately the hurricane's peak intensity. Over the Gulf of Mexico, the hurricane caused 101 deaths, mostly from the sinking of the steamer Marowjine in the Yucatán Channel. During the early morning hours of August 17, the hurricane made landfall with winds of 130 mph (210 km/h) at San Luis Pass, Texas, approximately 26 mile (42 km) southwest of Galveston. Much of coastal Texas was affected by the storm's rough surf, with a total death toll of 275. Cities along Galveston Bay were inundated by storm surge, destroying entire towns and damaging numerous buildings. Galveston was largely protected by its seawall, but the strong waves caused extensive beach erosion that undermined 200 outlying homes. Ninety percent of homes outside the protection of the seawall on Galveston Island were destroyed. Most buildings in Houston were impacted, incurring $1 million in damage. The storm brought strong winds and torrential rainfall across East Texas, causing widespread cotton losses and damage to infrastructure—the highest rainfall total from the storm was in San Augustine, Texas. The hurricane weakened as it tracked farther inland, degenerating into a tropical storm within a day of its landfall in Texas. A northeast curve soon followed, resulting in a track into the Ozarks and Ohio River Valley; the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on August 20 over the Ozarks and dissipated over the Gulf of Saint Lawrence three days later. Heavy rainfall and significant river flooding occurred along the storm's path during this latter phase of its evolution. Levee breaches in along the White River in Arkansas and the Mississippi River in Illinois flooded entire towns. St. Louis, Missouri recorded its rainiest 24 hour period in history, experiencing a deadly flood of the River Des Peres and Meramec River that impacted much of the city and surrounding suburbs, killing 20 people and destroying over a thousand homes.

On August 5, 1915, observations from Cabo Verde and the marine vicinity suggested the presence of a nearby tropical depression. On this basis, a 2008 reanalysis of the official hurricane database concluded that the depression formed by 12:00 UTC that day. Tracking west, the system gradually strengthened over the tropical Atlantic, attaining tropical storm intensity on August 6 and eventually reaching hurricane intensity three days later while well east of the Lesser Antilles. Despite the storm's power, the United States Weather Bureau was unaware of its existence for at least five days due to the sparsity of data over the open ocean; in a summary of the storm published in the Monthly Weather Review the following month, the Bureau noted that "there was nothing to indicate that conditions were favorable for the formation of a tropical storm, nor [ ] was there anything pronounced to indicate its direction of progression  "

Between August 12–13, the intensifying hurricane traversed the Caribbean Sea between Haiti and Jamaica with a bearing slightly north of west. Upon moving ashore, the hurricane had winds estimated at 130 mph (215 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 940 mbar (hPa; 27.76 inHg); these values were estimated using a peripheral pressure of 953 mbar (hPa; 28.14 inHg) measured at Velasco, Texas. Two days later, the system transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while tracking northeast across Arkansas and southeastern Missouri;

Ships off of Jamaica were brought to their moorings in advance of the storm, including the United Fruit Company steamer Saramacca, whose trek to New York City was cut short by the approaching hurricane. Some residents in Key West, Florida, evacuated by train to Miami, Florida, ahead of the storm, taking refuge in Miami's hotels and boarding houses. Thousands evacuated Galveston, Texas, for the mainland, crowding train cars to capacity while automobile traffic pervaded the roads. A total of 7,000 evacuees from areas along the Galveston bay stayed in Houston during the storm, including 4,000 from Galveston proper. The 25 convicts held at a prison in Morgan's Point were relocated to the county jail in Houston. Port Aransas residents evacuated by boat to the Texas mainland. Roughly half of the combined population of Port Arthur and Beaumont evacuated, while nearly 200 residents of Port O'Connor—most of the city's population—evacuated via the St. Louis–San Francisco Railway to a hotel in Victoria on August 16. Ships along the coast were held at port to weather the hurricane.

The 1915 Galveston hurricane brought gusty winds and heavy rainfall throughout its path from the Lesser Antilles into the Midwestern United States.

Damage caused by the hurricane east of Hispaniola was generally minor and limited to shipping. Docks were flooded at Fort de France in Martinique by the high tides. Other islands in the Lesser Antilles reported "some damage to small shipping", as summarized by the Monthly Weather Review. Strong winds buffeted the island of Dominica on August 10, where heavy rains caused rivers to rise and flood streets. Roseau was impacted by a power outage as telephone and electric poles were downed. Damage to buildings in Rouseau was limited to siding and fencing. Crops sustained some losses, particularly limes. Dwellings in some communities were either destroyed or damaged. Telecommunication lines were also downed in Saint Thomas and a schooner was grounded in Saint Kitts. Three fourths of the 270 houses on Cayman Brac were destroyed, leaving 1,800 people destitute. Nearly all of the island's coconut trees were also destroyed, while half of coconut trees were downed on Little Cayman. Several schooners were also driven ashore by the storm, and another bearing oil and gasoline cargo was lost. Hundreds of cattle and swine were killed on Grand Cayman. Western extents of Cuba were severely affected by the hurricane, and documented the calm of the hurricane's eye. this figure was revised downwards to $50,000, stemming from the manageable loss of one third of the island's grapefruit crop. Winds in Havana topped out at however, coconut trees throughout the island largely withstood the hurricane. Communications were cut in the outlying districts. Along the coast, rough surf ahead of the storm sank one boat and damaged several others at Port Royal. The earliest gusts damaged banana plantations in Saint Thomas Parish as the storm's fringes brought strong winds and showers to the eastern end of the island on the evening of August 13; the parish ultimately lost 70 percent of its banana crop. Significant damage was wrought to the parishes of Saint Mary and Portland. The coastal railway sustained "unprecedented" damage, with all segments of track nearest to the coastline destroyed. The wharf at Manchionel was destroyed and the main coastal road damaged at several points. A stretch of seawall there was destroyed by the wave action. The damage toll for the town was estimated at £20,000, with as high as 99 percent loss of bananas locally; the banana crop was expected not to recover for 8–9 months. The main thoroughfare connecting Port Maria and Annotto Bay was damaged, while the primary road connecting Annotto Bay and Port Antonio was washed away. In Saint Catherine Parish, banana trees were snapped by the storm's winds and homes were unroofed; an estimated 40–50 percent of banana trees in the parish were lost. resulting in slight damage limited to fallen fences and trees. Gusty winds also reached Montego Bay without considerable consequence. Some railways were partially inundated, including the Kingston to Montego Bay railway between Cambridge and Appleton. Found marine wreckage was later associated with the ship, confirming its sinking. In the northern Gulf of Mexico, a schooner sank several miles south of Mobile, Alabama, killing three. Off the coast of Pensacola, Florida, there were two more fatalities when a fishing boat ran aground. The battleship USS Louisiana (BB 19), traveling in tandem with the New Hampshire, was also caught in the storm, though neither ship was damaged. In all, the hurricane left 101 people dead in the Gulf of Mexico and Yucatán Channel. These maximum winds radially extended 30 mile (48 km) out from the center of the storm. The largest contributor to the hurricane's damage toll was ship related: several hundreds of vessels were wrecked offshore East Texas and western Louisiana. In 2018, an analysis of historical U. S. landfalls suggested that a storm striking the same areas as the 1915 hurricane would inflict $109.8 billion in damage when normalizing for 2018 demographics and inflation.

Although the hurricane did not make landfall on Florida as initially feared, The hurricane's northernmost showers dropped heavy rains over Key West. A thunderstorm in Waveland, Mississippi, killed one person and washed out of road along the beach. Winds topped out at along the coast of Louisiana. Grand Isle was flooded under 6 feet (2 m) of water. All wharves and boathouses in Grand Lake were destroyed by the storm surge. The storm's waves also left 200 people stranded on Marsh Island. The southern half of Cameron Parish was inundated in saltwater, killing 70–90 percent of cattle and damaging many homes. Heavy rainfall in the state's western parishes flooded some of the area's smaller streams. Compromised telephone wires due to strong winds in the Shreveport area put 400 telephones out of service. Damage from the hurricane in Louisiana amounted to no greater than $1 million and was largely limited to rice and livestock amid the coastal marshes. providing the first substantial test of the artificial barrier. Initial reports in The Houston Post drew comparisons between the strengths and paths of the 1915 hurricane and the 1900 hurricane. Galveston mayor Lewis Fisher also tentatively estimated that the total property damage from the 1915 hurricane would be costlier. Although the 1915 hurricane lasted longer than the 1900 hurricane and was of comparable intensity, In their last received report before landfall, the Galveston News asserted that "the sea wall built to protect the city has stood the test". During the hurricane's passage, many Galveston residents took refuge in public buildings, including an estimated 5,000 people at the Union Depot. Streetcar, electric, and gas service were all suspended as the storm made landfall. Telecommunications from the Galveston News were cut after 8:20 p. m. CST on August 16 (01:20 UTC August 17), The first reports from Galveston after the storm emerged on August 19. No official record of the storm surge height at Galveston was preserved as the tide gauges operated by the United States Geological Survey and United States Army Corps of Engineers were destroyed by the hurricane. However, measurements of high water marks by the Army Corps of Engineers at the intersection of 20th and Strand Streets indicated the maximum water level reached 11.965 feet (4 m) above the mean low tide height, suggesting water levels above those during the 1900 hurricane. Streets in the city's retail district were first submerged after 6 p. m. CST on August 16 (23:00 UTC), with roads eventually submerged under 5 feet (2 m) of water at the height of the storm; Most ships in Galveston's wharves weathered the hurricane without much damage. The wharves themselves generally sustained minor damage and all were repairable. A 20 block length of Seawall Boulevard was destroyed by this erosion. Two interurban cars laid at rest at the destroyed drawbridge, partially submerged underwater. Military installations at Fort Crockett were heavily damaged, with much of the grounds eroded and forts destroyed; damage there totaled over $500,000. At least 90 percent of the 250 homes on Galveston Island outside the seawall's protection were destroyed. Sixty people sought refuge at the Point Bolivar Light during the storm. The agitated waters of Matagorda Bay flooded the Matagorda Peninsula a day before landfall, The life saving station in Freeport near the mouth of the Brazos River was destroyed, killing 19 people. Upstream the Brazos River in Brazoria, strong winds damaged crops, fences, and trees. Most crops in Matagorda County withstood the storm, though 25–35 percent of the rice crop was lost, including Blue Rose, Honduras, and Japan varieties. Aside from cotton losses, Port Lavaca along Matagorda Bay suffered light damage to property. Bathhouses in Port Aransas were destroyed. the Houston Chronicle described Seabrook as being "entirely annihilated". Lynchburg was reported in The Houston Post to have been "wiped off [the] map". A hundred bales of cotton, skiffs, small craft, and a buoy littered the Hitchcock area, accompanied by floodwaters that submerged railway tracks, preventing access to the Galveston Causeway. The flooding remained 5 feet (2 m) deep and inside homes the morning after landfall. The bodies of seven people were recovered in the city. At the height of the storm, winds there were estimated in excess of Many freight cars were knocked onto their sides, with one blown off of its tracks. Another seven people were killed in the Morgan's Point area due to storm surge; one measurement of the tides there indicated that seas were 14 feet (4 m) higher than mean low tide. Hundreds of dead cattle and other animals washed ashore along the Morgan's Point bayfront. Six people were killed in La Porte and three in nearby Sylvan Beach. The dredge Sam Houston capsized in a channel 7 mile (11 km) off of Texas City, drowning 56–60 people; there were only three survivors. Two oil tank steamers were grounded between Texas City and Virginia Point while numerous small craft sank. Strong winds blew away an entire telephone station. Beaumont lost all telecommunication capabilities, including service to over 1,500 telephones. The Southwestern Telegraph and Telephone Company estimated at least $50,000 in damage was dealt to its assets in the city. A Catholic church, frame buildings, and a grandstand were destroyed, while hundreds of windows were blown out by the hurricane. The city also lost all power during the night of landfall. With the exception of one, all oil derricks at the Sour Lake oilfield were destroyed. The surge pushed a 50,000 barrel oil tank inland into Nederland. Widespread damage amounting to $25,000 occurred in Orange. Six smokestacks at a paper mill collapsed, damaging roofing below. Other factory smokestacks around the city also collapsed, damaging adjacent structures. Several ships held at port were damaged and some sank. Elsewhere in the southeastern Texas counties of Jefferson and Liberty, strong winds blew down corn, cotton, and rice crops, accounting for most of the damage in those counties.

A peak wind of was estimated in Houston at 8 a. m. CST on August 17 (13:00 UTC). Most buildings in the city sustained some form of damage, amounting to a $1 million damage toll. One person was killed after stepping upon a downed power line. The Southwestern Telegraph and Telephone Company conservatively estimated the damage to its communication lines in Houston at $100,000, making it the most disruptive incident in the company's history. Roughly half of the 20,000 phone lines in the city were inoperative, with an average of 200 lines knocked out of commission per hour. The severest effects in Houston were realized in the shopping district, where store fronts were destroyed and the associated glass and wood debris scattered over several blocks. Numerous windows were blown out of many buildings while other buildings partially collapsed. The now penetrable façades allowed rainfall to cause additional interior water damage. Some of the wind blown debris produced additional damage to buildings that otherwise withstood the winds themselves; pieces of slate from a Baptist church shattered nearly every window on the ground and mezzanine floors of a nearby furniture store, with windows broken up to the building's seventh story; total damage to the store was enumerated at $7,000. In the eastern parts of Houston around Harrisburg Road, homes were unroofed and large trees uprooted. Along Washington Avenue, chimneys were torn from houses and fences were either blown down or destroyed by fallen trees. West End Park suffered extensive damage with the roof and upper deck of the baseball field destroyed. Debris was widespread in South Houston, especially in areas with flat terrain and lacking in vegetation. Thousands of dollars of damage was wrought to homes and other buildings. Damage to schools across the Houston area amounted to $15,000. Virtually all roads in Harris County were damaged, resulting in a $100,000 toll.

Winds of reached as far west as San Antonio. The hurricane wrought extensive damage to Brazos County, with strong winds destroying the chimneys and windows of numerous homes; the ruined façades resulted in widespread flooding of homes. Small houses and thousands of trees were toppled, as well as a 112 feet (34 m) high oil derrick. Awnings were pulled apart from storefronts throughout the Main Street area, and the county courthouse was badly damaged. Two halls and small buildings were damaged at Texas A&M University, amounting to a damage toll of $5,000–$10,000. The Bryan Weekly Eagle reported that the storm had "no equal in the history of the county". Widespread damage also occurred in Rockdale and Caldwell. At Rockdale, the winds caused leaks in almost every house and tore down power lines, A church and warehouse in Elgin were destroyed. Seven other towns reported major cotton losses and minor property damage. The cotton crop was entirely destroyed in Bastrop, Hallettsvile, Sealy, Shiner, and Smithville. About 15–25 percent of cotton across Central Texas was damaged, amounting to several millions of dollars in losses. In Travis County, more cotton bolls were open compared to other areas prior to the storm, making the county susceptible to greater losses. All unharvested corn was blown down in Lexington. In Williamson County, the storm was more destructive than the 1900 hurricane, damaging outhouses, windmills, and buildings on the Southwestern University campus. The county also lost 15,000–20,000 bales of cotton. Heavy rains and winds of were reported across the Dallas–Fort Worth area. Significant flooding occurred along the Sabine and Neches rivers, with minor flooding along the ends of the Trinity River. Supplied by rainfall amounts throughout their watersheds, the Sabine and Neches rivers remained flooded for the remainder of August, expanding to a width of 4 mile (6 km) in some locations. The rivers reached their highest stages on August 23, with the Neches River at Beaumont reaching a stage of 14 feet (4 m); this was the highest river stage for Beaumont since river observations began in September 1903. The elevated Neches River inundated a 4.5 mile (7 km) wide section of Orange County.

The remnants of the 1915 hurricane brought strong winds inland to the lower Ohio River Valley and severe flooding from Texas to New York. Open cotton bolls and corn were beaten down by the precipitation. Many cities reported flooding after extended periods of continuous rainfall. The Ouachita River at Hot Springs reached its highest level on record, causing thousands of dollars in damage to crops. The White River experienced its worst flood overall since 1891, though upper portions of the river valley experienced unprecedented flooding. Entire towns were caught in the floodwaters, with bridges and buildings destroyed along the banks. All crops along the river upstream of DeValls Bluff were destroyed; In Independence County, of cropland were submerged by the White River. Newport was flooded after the local levee along the river was breached. The city's water and electricity plants went out of commission and all businesses were forced to close. The causeway across Newport Lake was washed out. Two steamers were later sent there to rescue flood stricken residents. A family of five drowned at Oil Trough upstream. Many livestock also drowned from the rise of White River. The swollen Arkansas and Red rivers also caused damaging floods, albeit less severe than along the banks of the White River. Thirteen bridges along the Missouri and Northern Arkansas Railroad were damaged. Total losses from the storm in Arkansas amounted to $2.43 million. Heavy rainfall from the weakening remnants also damaged crops and property between August 18–21 in eastern parts of the Ozark Plateau in Missouri. Saint Louis University in St. Louis recorded the highest precipitation total in the state at until 2022. St. Louis suffered catastrophic flooding from the remnants of the 1915 hurricane, recording the city's highest single day rainfall total with on August 20. The River Des Peres overflowed its banks, flooding and encompassing many streets including Delmar Boulevard. Train and streetcar service throughout the city was halted. The Wabash Railroad station on Delmar Boulevard was isolated by floodwaters 7 feet (2 m) deep and wide. Forest Park was flooded, submerging the golf course and endangering the St. Louis Zoo. The subway at Union Station was inundated by 4 feet (1 m) of water from Mill Creek. Numerous motor and horse drawn vehicles became stranded in water. The Meramec River rose 43 feet (13 m) from the flooding, submerging the entire town of Valley Park 20 mile (32 km) southwest of St. Louis. Buildings were flooded to their second floors. Damage from the flooding in St. Louis County extending into western Illinois was estimated at $1 million.

The hurricane's remnants contributed to the coolest and rainiest August in Illinois history. The storm tracked across the southern part of the state on August 20, bringing high winds and heavy rain. The winds damaged corn throughout the southern half of the state, with the crop damage worsened by rivers overflowing their banks. Widespread precipitation totals of were recorded, with a localized area of totals within 70 mile (113 km) of St. Louis, Missouri. Flooding occurred in the state's southwestern counties southward to Jackson County. Many farm animals drowned and bridges and railroads were washed out. A levee breach resulted in the flooding of Benbow City, East Alton, and western Wood River. Many factories suspended operations due to floods, including cartridge and gunpowder producers who incurred $250,000 in damage. Two companies' factories were overtaken by flooding with their 400 employees narrowly escaping. Richland Creek, which runs through Belleville, had expanded from its normal 15 feet (5 m) width to a width of 900 feet (274 m) as a result of the rainfall. Corn and tobacco crops were damaged in Christian and Trigg counties in Kentucky by the storm's winds. In Louisville, five minute sustained winds peaked at Crops were also damaged at Lone Oak in McCracken County, including apple and peach trees. Telecommunications were disrupted in Paducah after telephone and telegraph wires were damaged by the storm's winds. Street lights in the city were also knocked out amid power interruptions. Winds of were measured in Nashville, Tennessee. One person was injured in Nashville by a plateglass window blown out by the wind, while another person in the city was injured after a wind loosened sign fell upon them. The winds downed a few telecommunication lines across Tennessee. A meeting to discuss aftermath management was assembled on August 17 at Galveston's Cotton Exchange Building, with Mayor Fisher presiding and representatives of the city's interests present. Drinking water was made available on request via the pumping station on 33rd Street, which would be able to supply potable water for two weeks. The mayor also ordered the establishment of a milk depot. Longer term plans to restore the causeway were deliberated upon by engineers at a conference in Houston on August 31. By September, rail service with Galveston was reestablished. Fireboats pumped sewage and debris from the city out into Galveston Harbor. Several infrastructure plans were forwarded to mitigate impacts from storms like the 1915 hurricane, including elevating the city further and extending the seawall; these proposals would necessitate millions of dollars. Texas Governor James E. Ferguson directed the state to "render all assistance possible to Galveston, should the seriousness of the situation warrant such action"; he and members of his executive staff later traveled to the city to assess the situation. Ferguson later called for relief supplies and funds to be sent to Austin, primarily for communities outside Houston and Galveston. The Texas Adjutant General, John A. McCalmont, prepared blankets, cots, and tents for shipment to Houston and Galveston for storm refugees. Militia companies from Austin were sent to oversee the distribution of relief supplies. Houston Mayor Benjamin Campbell compelled several hundred city residents at a meeting on August 17 to determine the necessary aid needed for Galveston; at the time, there was a lack of information on the storm's impacts arising from Galveston. A steamer was later dispatched at Campbell's behest to investigate the hurricane's effects there. Campbell also barred people from traveling to Galveston without permits describing their intent and requesting admittance into the city; travelers were stopped in Texas City to verify permits. Due to the damage wrought to West End Park in Houston, the Houston Ball Club transferred their remaining games in the 1915 season in San Antonio. and a similar fund was organized by Waco residents. Fifty men with motor boats and skiffs were dispatched on a special Kansas City Southern Railway train to assist in rescue operations in Port Arthur. Major General J. Franklin Bell issued rations for soldiers and civilians. ultimately, U. S. Secretary of War Lindley Miller Garrison decided not to rebuild the camp, resulting in the division's relocation. In order to prevent the spread of disease, over a hundred animal carcasses were burned in Texas City.