Введение
Кинопроизводство на Кубе
The first ten years of the institution were called by critics the Golden Age (Década de Oro) of Cuban cinema, most of all because of the making of Lucía (1969) by Humberto Solás and Memorias del subdesarrollo (Memories of Underdevelopment) (1968) by Tomás Gutiérrez Alea. These two directors are often regarded as the best film directors to have come out of Cuba. Memorias del subdesarrollo was selected among the best 100 films of all times by the International Federation of Film Clubs. One of the most prolific and strong branches of the Cuban cinema in the last 40 years has been documentaries and short films. The documentary Now (1965) by Santiago Álvarez is often considered the first video clip in history. It combines a song with an uninterrupted sequence of images depicting racial discrimination in the U. S
Animation has also been a major highlight in the last decades. In 1974, Juan Padrón gave birth to Elpidio Valdés, a character that represents a mambí fighter, struggling for Cuban independence against the Spanish occupation in the 19th century. It is very popular among Cuban children. Another great success of Cuban animation was the full length film Vampiros en La Habana (1983), also by Juan Padrón. Essential in the history of Cuban cinema is the Noticiero ICAIC Latinoamericano (Latin American ICAIC News) whose first director was Alfredo Guevara. Years later it was directed by Santiago Álvarez and the Mexican Rodolfo Espino, the most successful documentary maker in the island. In 1979 the ICAIC played a key role in the creation of the Festival Internacional del Nuevo Cine Latinoamericano (International Festival of New Latin American Cinema) allowing Latin American films a more international audience. The festival is one of the most important of its type in Latin America and has been held in Havana every year since 1979. There is also an international cinema university, the Escuela Internacional de Cine, Televisión y Video de San Antonio de los Baños (International School of Cinema, Television and Video of San Antonio de los Baños) located in San Antonio de los Baños near Havana, on land donated by the Cuban government and supported by the Fundación del Nuevo Cine Latinoamericano, Gabriel García Márquez and the Father of the New Latin American Cinema, Fernando Birri. Hundreds of young students from all over Latin America have studied direction, script, photography and edition. The contribution of the ICAIC, which was rapidly positioned as the head of a process aiming for legitimate artistic values and expression of nationality, is not limited only to the support in producing and promoting a movement that spanned fiction, documentary and animation, but also allowed for the exhibition and spread of popular knowledge of the best of cinema from all over the world. It also created the film archives of the Cinemateca de Cuba, and took part in initiatives such as Cinemóviles, which made cinema available on the most intricate sites of the national geography. The institution also helped developing the Cuban poster, as a mean of promoting films. It gave birth between 1969 and 1977, to the Grupo de Experimentación Sonora, which influenced Cuban music to a great extent, serving as a starting point for the movement of the Nueva Trova. Figures like Silvio Rodríguez, Pablo Milanés and Leo Brouwer were prominent through all this process. In 1980, Alfredo Guevara was ousted from his position as head of the ICAIC, which he had held since its formation, over controversies about Cecilia (1982 film). The film, directed by Humberto Solás, was based on the 19th century Cuban novel Cecilia Valdés. It was the most ambitious Cuban film to date and somewhat monopolized the funds available to filmmakers during its production. This, coupled with the fact that many other directors and the general public did not agree with Solás's interpretation of the film, led to the removal of Alfredo Guevara from his position. Having won a great deal of autonomy from the central government in the 1970s, the ICAIC, under the new leadership of Julio García Espinosa, was allowed to make many films dealing with sociopolitical issues. Espinosa was able to increase the recognition of Cuban film and especially of the International Festival of New Latin American Cinema by obtaining greater funds from the government and also inviting big names such as Francis Ford Coppola, Sydney Pollack, Robert De Niro, and Jack Lemmon to the island. Despite his successes, Espinosa faced a large problem in 1991, again due to a controversial film. This film, entitled Alicia en el pueblo de Maravillas, was very critical of the bureaucracy of the government. This, combined with the simultaneous collapse of the Soviet Union, led to Espinosa's retirement. During this time, Alfredo Guevara returned to the scene of the ICAIC in order to help it maintain its autonomy from the central government. Many of the party faithful were calling for the organization to merge with the Cuban Radio and Television Institute. Due to the loss of Cuba's largest trading partner, the Soviet Union, the future of the island country became uncertain, and criticism of the government, which the ICAIC was known for, became unpopular. Guevara managed to get the film released and allow the ICAIC to keep its independent status. He then remained president of the organization throughout the Special Period until his retirement in 2000. Based on a play by Ivan Acosta, the film was broadly distributed in the U. S. and won awards at film festivals in Mannheim, Biarritz and Venice. The film examines the trauma of the Cuban middle class, showing them as displaced from their former life and unable to adapt to new circumstances. It also highlights generational conflicts between Cuban born parents and their teenage children who have been raised in the U. S. and reject tradition in favor of the North American way of life. Jiménez Leal went on to make documentary films such as The Other Cuba (1983) and Improper Conduct (1984) in collaboration with Néstor Almendros. Improper Conduct is a highly controversial film that deals with the treatment of gays in Cuba. The Other Cuba is a bitter denunciation of the Revolution told from the point of view of the exiled community. The director's strong anti Castro stance gave voice to the growing community of Cuban political exiles in the U. S. in the 1980s. Leon Ichaso's best known film in the U. S. is Bitter Sugar (1996), a fictional film that strongly criticizes life in post revolutionary Cuba. The screenplay, written by Ichaso and Orestes Matacena shows the disillusionment of a young Communist and his girlfriend, who are pushed to the breaking point by a repressive society. In tone and theme, it is similar to Jorge Ulla's Guaguasí (1982), which had less distribution in the U. S. The Guaguasí screenplay, written by Orestes Matacena, Clara Hernandez and Ulla, portrays a simple man from the countryside, played by actor Orestes Matacena, who is brutalized by his experiences with the revolutionary government in Cuba. The reactionary stance of directors like Villa, Ulla, Ichaso, Almendros and Jiménez Leal has made them the cinematic spokespersons for Cubans who believe that Fidel Castro is personally responsible for negative changes that have occurred in Cuba since 1959. Bitter Sugar has been shown to the Human Rights Commission in Geneva, Switzerland and to the US Congress. An important theme in cinema of the Cuban diaspora is the coming and going of people in exile, and the difficult process of adaptation to a new culture. Iván Acosta made the film Amigos (1986) to show the painful bicultural existence of Cuban Americans living in Miami. Although it is a low budget film, it does an effective job of capturing the problems of the younger generation of Cuban Americans who are torn between the desire to fit in and the pressure to uphold tradition. Lejanía (1985) by Jesús Díaz is the first film to deal with the issue of Cuban exiles returning to the island for visits with relatives. Cercanía (2008) by Rolando Díaz, the brother of Jesús, shows a recent arrival from Cuba attempting to reconcile with his family in Miami after decades apart. Rather than address political themes in a direct way, these films focus on personal issues related to adaptation and culture shock. Honey for Oshún (2001) by Humberto Solás, a Cuban director who remained in Cuba, addresses the clash between Cuban Americans returning to the island and those who never left. It hints that reconciliation is possible, as long as those who return are willing to accept Cuba on its own terms and not force capitalist ideology on the Cuban people. In Cuba, films made by Cuban Americans or Cubans in exile are not widely distributed or well known, in part because the films deal with the Revolution in a negative light, but also because Cubans on the island dispute the notion of a Cuban diaspora and believe that those who live in exile no longer represent Cuban reality in an authentic light. They take the position that directors who experience life outside Cuba represent Cuba through a distorted lens, and that the films they make are largely works of propaganda. Many important Cuban actors now live in exile. Among them are César Évora, Anabel Leal, Reinaldo Cruz, Francisco Gattorno, Reynaldo Miravalles, Tomás Millán, William Marquez, Orestes Matacena and Isabel Moreno. Cuban American actors who were born in Cuba but grew up in the U. S. include Andy García, Steven Bauer, William Levy, and Tony Plana.
Первые десять лет существования института критики назвали Золотым веком кубинского кино, прежде всего благодаря созданию фильмов «Лусия» (1969) Хумберто Соласа и «Память о неразвитии» (1968) Томаса Гутьерреса Алеа. Эти два режиссера часто считаются лучшими режиссерами, появившимися на Кубе. «Память о неразвитии» была включена Международной федерацией киноклубов в число 100 лучших фильмов всех времен. Одной из наиболее продуктивных и значимых ветвей кубинского кино за последние 40 лет стали документальные и короткометражные фильмы. Документальный фильм Сантьяго Альвареса «Now» (1965) часто считается первым видеоклипом в истории. Он сочетает в себе песню с непрерывной последовательностью изображений, демонстрирующих расовую дискриминацию в США.
The first ten years of the institution were called by critics the Golden Age (Década de Oro) of Cuban cinema, most of all because of the making of Lucía (1969) by Humberto Solás and Memorias del subdesarrollo (Memories of Underdevelopment) (1968) by Tomás Gutiérrez Alea. These two directors are often regarded as the best film directors to have come out of Cuba. Memorias del subdesarrollo was selected among the best 100 films of all times by the International Federation of Film Clubs. One of the most prolific and strong branches of the Cuban cinema in the last 40 years has been documentaries and short films. The documentary Now (1965) by Santiago Álvarez is often considered the first video clip in history. It combines a song with an uninterrupted sequence of images depicting racial discrimination in the U. S
Animation has also been a major highlight in the last decades. In 1974, Juan Padrón gave birth to Elpidio Valdés, a character that represents a mambí fighter, struggling for Cuban independence against the Spanish occupation in the 19th century. It is very popular among Cuban children. Another great success of Cuban animation was the full length film Vampiros en La Habana (1983), also by Juan Padrón. Essential in the history of Cuban cinema is the Noticiero ICAIC Latinoamericano (Latin American ICAIC News) whose first director was Alfredo Guevara. Years later it was directed by Santiago Álvarez and the Mexican Rodolfo Espino, the most successful documentary maker in the island. In 1979 the ICAIC played a key role in the creation of the Festival Internacional del Nuevo Cine Latinoamericano (International Festival of New Latin American Cinema) allowing Latin American films a more international audience. The festival is one of the most important of its type in Latin America and has been held in Havana every year since 1979. There is also an international cinema university, the Escuela Internacional de Cine, Televisión y Video de San Antonio de los Baños (International School of Cinema, Television and Video of San Antonio de los Baños) located in San Antonio de los Baños near Havana, on land donated by the Cuban government and supported by the Fundación del Nuevo Cine Latinoamericano, Gabriel García Márquez and the Father of the New Latin American Cinema, Fernando Birri. Hundreds of young students from all over Latin America have studied direction, script, photography and edition. The contribution of the ICAIC, which was rapidly positioned as the head of a process aiming for legitimate artistic values and expression of nationality, is not limited only to the support in producing and promoting a movement that spanned fiction, documentary and animation, but also allowed for the exhibition and spread of popular knowledge of the best of cinema from all over the world. It also created the film archives of the Cinemateca de Cuba, and took part in initiatives such as Cinemóviles, which made cinema available on the most intricate sites of the national geography. The institution also helped developing the Cuban poster, as a mean of promoting films. It gave birth between 1969 and 1977, to the Grupo de Experimentación Sonora, which influenced Cuban music to a great extent, serving as a starting point for the movement of the Nueva Trova. Figures like Silvio Rodríguez, Pablo Milanés and Leo Brouwer were prominent through all this process. In 1980, Alfredo Guevara was ousted from his position as head of the ICAIC, which he had held since its formation, over controversies about Cecilia (1982 film). The film, directed by Humberto Solás, was based on the 19th century Cuban novel Cecilia Valdés. It was the most ambitious Cuban film to date and somewhat monopolized the funds available to filmmakers during its production. This, coupled with the fact that many other directors and the general public did not agree with Solás's interpretation of the film, led to the removal of Alfredo Guevara from his position. Having won a great deal of autonomy from the central government in the 1970s, the ICAIC, under the new leadership of Julio García Espinosa, was allowed to make many films dealing with sociopolitical issues. Espinosa was able to increase the recognition of Cuban film and especially of the International Festival of New Latin American Cinema by obtaining greater funds from the government and also inviting big names such as Francis Ford Coppola, Sydney Pollack, Robert De Niro, and Jack Lemmon to the island. Despite his successes, Espinosa faced a large problem in 1991, again due to a controversial film. This film, entitled Alicia en el pueblo de Maravillas, was very critical of the bureaucracy of the government. This, combined with the simultaneous collapse of the Soviet Union, led to Espinosa's retirement. During this time, Alfredo Guevara returned to the scene of the ICAIC in order to help it maintain its autonomy from the central government. Many of the party faithful were calling for the organization to merge with the Cuban Radio and Television Institute. Due to the loss of Cuba's largest trading partner, the Soviet Union, the future of the island country became uncertain, and criticism of the government, which the ICAIC was known for, became unpopular. Guevara managed to get the film released and allow the ICAIC to keep its independent status. He then remained president of the organization throughout the Special Period until his retirement in 2000. Based on a play by Ivan Acosta, the film was broadly distributed in the U. S. and won awards at film festivals in Mannheim, Biarritz and Venice. The film examines the trauma of the Cuban middle class, showing them as displaced from their former life and unable to adapt to new circumstances. It also highlights generational conflicts between Cuban born parents and their teenage children who have been raised in the U. S. and reject tradition in favor of the North American way of life. Jiménez Leal went on to make documentary films such as The Other Cuba (1983) and Improper Conduct (1984) in collaboration with Néstor Almendros. Improper Conduct is a highly controversial film that deals with the treatment of gays in Cuba. The Other Cuba is a bitter denunciation of the Revolution told from the point of view of the exiled community. The director's strong anti Castro stance gave voice to the growing community of Cuban political exiles in the U. S. in the 1980s. Leon Ichaso's best known film in the U. S. is Bitter Sugar (1996), a fictional film that strongly criticizes life in post revolutionary Cuba. The screenplay, written by Ichaso and Orestes Matacena shows the disillusionment of a young Communist and his girlfriend, who are pushed to the breaking point by a repressive society. In tone and theme, it is similar to Jorge Ulla's Guaguasí (1982), which had less distribution in the U. S. The Guaguasí screenplay, written by Orestes Matacena, Clara Hernandez and Ulla, portrays a simple man from the countryside, played by actor Orestes Matacena, who is brutalized by his experiences with the revolutionary government in Cuba. The reactionary stance of directors like Villa, Ulla, Ichaso, Almendros and Jiménez Leal has made them the cinematic spokespersons for Cubans who believe that Fidel Castro is personally responsible for negative changes that have occurred in Cuba since 1959. Bitter Sugar has been shown to the Human Rights Commission in Geneva, Switzerland and to the US Congress. An important theme in cinema of the Cuban diaspora is the coming and going of people in exile, and the difficult process of adaptation to a new culture. Iván Acosta made the film Amigos (1986) to show the painful bicultural existence of Cuban Americans living in Miami. Although it is a low budget film, it does an effective job of capturing the problems of the younger generation of Cuban Americans who are torn between the desire to fit in and the pressure to uphold tradition. Lejanía (1985) by Jesús Díaz is the first film to deal with the issue of Cuban exiles returning to the island for visits with relatives. Cercanía (2008) by Rolando Díaz, the brother of Jesús, shows a recent arrival from Cuba attempting to reconcile with his family in Miami after decades apart. Rather than address political themes in a direct way, these films focus on personal issues related to adaptation and culture shock. Honey for Oshún (2001) by Humberto Solás, a Cuban director who remained in Cuba, addresses the clash between Cuban Americans returning to the island and those who never left. It hints that reconciliation is possible, as long as those who return are willing to accept Cuba on its own terms and not force capitalist ideology on the Cuban people. In Cuba, films made by Cuban Americans or Cubans in exile are not widely distributed or well known, in part because the films deal with the Revolution in a negative light, but also because Cubans on the island dispute the notion of a Cuban diaspora and believe that those who live in exile no longer represent Cuban reality in an authentic light. They take the position that directors who experience life outside Cuba represent Cuba through a distorted lens, and that the films they make are largely works of propaganda. Many important Cuban actors now live in exile. Among them are César Évora, Anabel Leal, Reinaldo Cruz, Francisco Gattorno, Reynaldo Miravalles, Tomás Millán, William Marquez, Orestes Matacena and Isabel Moreno. Cuban American actors who were born in Cuba but grew up in the U. S. include Andy García, Steven Bauer, William Levy, and Tony Plana.
Анимация также была одним из главных событий последних десятилетий. В 1974 году Хуан Падрон создал Эльпидио Вальдеса, персонажа, представляющего собой борца-мамби, сражающегося за независимость Кубы от испанской оккупации в XIX веке. Он очень популярен среди кубинских детей. Еще одним большим успехом кубинской анимации стал полнометражный фильм «Вампиры в Гаване» (1983), также снятый Хуаном Падроном. Важным в истории кубинского кино является «Noticiero ICAIC Latinoamericano» (Латиноамериканские новости ICAIC), первым директором которого был Альфредо Гевара. Спустя годы его режиссировали Сантьяго Альварес и мексиканец Родольфо Эспино, самый успешный документалист на острове. В 1979 году ICAIC сыграл ключевую роль в создании Международного фестиваля нового латиноамериканского кино, предоставив латиноамериканским фильмам более широкую международную аудиторию. Фестиваль является одним из самых важных в Латинской Америке и проводится в Гаване ежегодно с 1979 года. Также существует международный университет кино, Escuela Internacional de Cine, Televisión y Video de San Antonio de los Baños (Международная школа кино, телевидения и видео Сан-Антонио-де-лос-Банос), расположенный в Сан-Антонио-де-лос-Банос недалеко от Гаваны, на земле, пожертвованной кубинским правительством и поддерживаемой Fundación del Nuevo Cine Latinoamericano, Габриэлем Гарсией Маркесом и отцом нового латиноамериканского кино, Фернандо Бирри. Сотни молодых студентов со всей Латинской Америки изучали режиссуру, сценарное мастерство, операторское искусство и монтаж. Вклад ICAIC, который быстро занял позицию лидера процесса, направленного на подлинные художественные ценности и выражение национальной идентичности, не ограничивается только поддержкой производства и продвижения движения, охватывающего художественные фильмы, документальные фильмы и анимацию, но также обеспечивает показ и распространение знаний о лучших фильмах со всего мира. Он также создал киноархивы Кинотеки Кубы и участвовал в таких инициативах, как «Cinemóviles», которые сделали кино доступным в самых отдаленных уголках страны. Институт также способствовал развитию кубинского плаката как средства продвижения фильмов. В период с 1969 по 1977 год была создана «Grupo de Experimentación Sonora», оказавшая значительное влияние на кубинскую музыку и ставшая отправной точкой для движения «Nueva Trova». Такие фигуры, как Сильвио Родригес, Пабло Миланес и Лео Брауэр, были видны во всем этом процессе. В 1980 году Альфредо Гевара был отстранен от должности главы ICAIC, которую он занимал с момента его основания, из-за разногласий по поводу фильма «Сесилия» (1982). Фильм, снятый Хумберто Соласом, был основан на кубинском романе XIX века «Сесилия Вальдес». Это был самый амбициозный кубинский фильм на тот момент и в значительной степени монополизировал средства, доступные кинематографистам во время его производства. Это, в сочетании с тем, что многие другие режиссеры и широкая публика не согласились с интерпретацией фильма Соласом, привело к отстранению Альфредо Гевары от должности. Получив значительную автономию от центрального правительства в 1970-х годах, ICAIC, под новым руководством Хулио Гарсиа Эспиносы, получил возможность снимать множество фильмов, посвященных социально-политическим вопросам. Эспиноса смогла повысить признание кубинского кино и особенно Международного фестиваля нового латиноамериканского кино, получив больше средств от правительства и пригласив на остров таких известных личностей, как Фрэнсис Форд Коппола, Сидни Поллак, Роберт Де Ниро и Джек Леммон. Несмотря на свои успехи, в 1991 году Эспиноса столкнулась с серьезной проблемой, вновь вызванной спорным фильмом. Этот фильм, озаглавленный «Алиса в стране чудес», был очень критичен к бюрократии правительства. Это, в сочетании с одновременным распадом Советского Союза, привело к отставке Эспиносы. В это время Альфредо Гевара вернулся в ICAIC, чтобы помочь ему сохранить свою автономию от центрального правительства. Многие сторонники партии призывали к слиянию организации с Кубинским институтом радио и телевидения. Из-за потери крупнейшего торгового партнера Кубы, Советского Союза, будущее островного государства стало неопределенным, и критика правительства, за которую был известен ICAIC, стала непопулярной. Гевара сумел добиться выхода фильма на экраны и позволить ICAIC сохранить свой независимый статус. Затем он оставался президентом организации на протяжении «Особого периода» до своей отставки в 2000 году. Основанный на пьесе Ивана Акосты, фильм получил широкое распространение в США и завоевал награды на кинофестивалях в Мангейме, Биаррице и Венеции. Фильм исследует травму кубинского среднего класса, показывая его как вытесненного из своей прежней жизни и неспособного адаптироваться к новым обстоятельствам. Он также подчеркивает межпоколенческие конфликты между кубинскими родителями и их подростками, выросшими в США и отвергающими традиции в пользу североамериканского образа жизни. Хименес Леаль продолжил снимать документальные фильмы, такие как «Другая Куба» (1983) и «Непристойное поведение» (1984) в сотрудничестве с Нестором Альмендросом. «Непристойное поведение» — крайне противоречивый фильм, посвященный обращению с геями на Кубе. «Другая Куба» — горькое осуждение революции, представленное с точки зрения эмигрантской общины. Решительная антикастровская позиция режиссера дала голос растущему сообществу кубинских политических эмигрантов в США в 1980-х годах. Наиболее известный фильм Леона Ичасо в США — «Горький сахар» (1996), художественный фильм, резко критикующий жизнь в постреволюционной Кубе. Сценарий, написанный Ичасо и Орестесом Матасена, показывает разочарование молодого коммуниста и его девушки, доведенных до предела репрессивным обществом. По тону и тематике он похож на «Guaguasí» (1982) Хорхе Ульи, который имел меньшее распространение в США. Сценарий «Guaguasí», написанный Орестесом Матасена, Кларой Эрнандес и Ульей, изображает простого человека из деревни, сыгранного актером Орестесом Матасена, который подвергается жестокому обращению в результате своего опыта взаимодействия с революционным правительством Кубы. Реакционная позиция режиссеров, таких как Вилья, Улья, Ичасо, Альмендрос и Хименес Леаль, сделала их кинематографическими представителями кубинцев, которые считают Фиделя Кастро лично ответственным за негативные изменения, произошедшие на Кубе с 1959 года. «Горький сахар» был показан в Комиссии по правам человека в Женеве, Швейцария, и в Конгрессе США. Важной темой в кино кубинской диаспоры является приезд и отъезд людей в изгнании и трудный процесс адаптации к новой культуре. Иван Акоста снял фильм «Amigos» (1986), чтобы показать болезненное бикультурное существование кубинских американцев, живущих в Майами. Несмотря на то, что это малобюджетный фильм, он эффективно передает проблемы молодого поколения кубинских американцев, разрывающихся между желанием вписаться и давлением, чтобы придерживаться традиций. «Lejanía» (1985) Хесуса Ди…
The first ten years of the institution were called by critics the Golden Age (Década de Oro) of Cuban cinema, most of all because of the making of Lucía (1969) by Humberto Solás and Memorias del subdesarrollo (Memories of Underdevelopment) (1968) by Tomás Gutiérrez Alea. These two directors are often regarded as the best film directors to have come out of Cuba. Memorias del subdesarrollo was selected among the best 100 films of all times by the International Federation of Film Clubs. One of the most prolific and strong branches of the Cuban cinema in the last 40 years has been documentaries and short films. The documentary Now (1965) by Santiago Álvarez is often considered the first video clip in history. It combines a song with an uninterrupted sequence of images depicting racial discrimination in the U. S
Animation has also been a major highlight in the last decades. In 1974, Juan Padrón gave birth to Elpidio Valdés, a character that represents a mambí fighter, struggling for Cuban independence against the Spanish occupation in the 19th century. It is very popular among Cuban children. Another great success of Cuban animation was the full length film Vampiros en La Habana (1983), also by Juan Padrón. Essential in the history of Cuban cinema is the Noticiero ICAIC Latinoamericano (Latin American ICAIC News) whose first director was Alfredo Guevara. Years later it was directed by Santiago Álvarez and the Mexican Rodolfo Espino, the most successful documentary maker in the island. In 1979 the ICAIC played a key role in the creation of the Festival Internacional del Nuevo Cine Latinoamericano (International Festival of New Latin American Cinema) allowing Latin American films a more international audience. The festival is one of the most important of its type in Latin America and has been held in Havana every year since 1979. There is also an international cinema university, the Escuela Internacional de Cine, Televisión y Video de San Antonio de los Baños (International School of Cinema, Television and Video of San Antonio de los Baños) located in San Antonio de los Baños near Havana, on land donated by the Cuban government and supported by the Fundación del Nuevo Cine Latinoamericano, Gabriel García Márquez and the Father of the New Latin American Cinema, Fernando Birri. Hundreds of young students from all over Latin America have studied direction, script, photography and edition. The contribution of the ICAIC, which was rapidly positioned as the head of a process aiming for legitimate artistic values and expression of nationality, is not limited only to the support in producing and promoting a movement that spanned fiction, documentary and animation, but also allowed for the exhibition and spread of popular knowledge of the best of cinema from all over the world. It also created the film archives of the Cinemateca de Cuba, and took part in initiatives such as Cinemóviles, which made cinema available on the most intricate sites of the national geography. The institution also helped developing the Cuban poster, as a mean of promoting films. It gave birth between 1969 and 1977, to the Grupo de Experimentación Sonora, which influenced Cuban music to a great extent, serving as a starting point for the movement of the Nueva Trova. Figures like Silvio Rodríguez, Pablo Milanés and Leo Brouwer were prominent through all this process. In 1980, Alfredo Guevara was ousted from his position as head of the ICAIC, which he had held since its formation, over controversies about Cecilia (1982 film). The film, directed by Humberto Solás, was based on the 19th century Cuban novel Cecilia Valdés. It was the most ambitious Cuban film to date and somewhat monopolized the funds available to filmmakers during its production. This, coupled with the fact that many other directors and the general public did not agree with Solás's interpretation of the film, led to the removal of Alfredo Guevara from his position. Having won a great deal of autonomy from the central government in the 1970s, the ICAIC, under the new leadership of Julio García Espinosa, was allowed to make many films dealing with sociopolitical issues. Espinosa was able to increase the recognition of Cuban film and especially of the International Festival of New Latin American Cinema by obtaining greater funds from the government and also inviting big names such as Francis Ford Coppola, Sydney Pollack, Robert De Niro, and Jack Lemmon to the island. Despite his successes, Espinosa faced a large problem in 1991, again due to a controversial film. This film, entitled Alicia en el pueblo de Maravillas, was very critical of the bureaucracy of the government. This, combined with the simultaneous collapse of the Soviet Union, led to Espinosa's retirement. During this time, Alfredo Guevara returned to the scene of the ICAIC in order to help it maintain its autonomy from the central government. Many of the party faithful were calling for the organization to merge with the Cuban Radio and Television Institute. Due to the loss of Cuba's largest trading partner, the Soviet Union, the future of the island country became uncertain, and criticism of the government, which the ICAIC was known for, became unpopular. Guevara managed to get the film released and allow the ICAIC to keep its independent status. He then remained president of the organization throughout the Special Period until his retirement in 2000. Based on a play by Ivan Acosta, the film was broadly distributed in the U. S. and won awards at film festivals in Mannheim, Biarritz and Venice. The film examines the trauma of the Cuban middle class, showing them as displaced from their former life and unable to adapt to new circumstances. It also highlights generational conflicts between Cuban born parents and their teenage children who have been raised in the U. S. and reject tradition in favor of the North American way of life. Jiménez Leal went on to make documentary films such as The Other Cuba (1983) and Improper Conduct (1984) in collaboration with Néstor Almendros. Improper Conduct is a highly controversial film that deals with the treatment of gays in Cuba. The Other Cuba is a bitter denunciation of the Revolution told from the point of view of the exiled community. The director's strong anti Castro stance gave voice to the growing community of Cuban political exiles in the U. S. in the 1980s. Leon Ichaso's best known film in the U. S. is Bitter Sugar (1996), a fictional film that strongly criticizes life in post revolutionary Cuba. The screenplay, written by Ichaso and Orestes Matacena shows the disillusionment of a young Communist and his girlfriend, who are pushed to the breaking point by a repressive society. In tone and theme, it is similar to Jorge Ulla's Guaguasí (1982), which had less distribution in the U. S. The Guaguasí screenplay, written by Orestes Matacena, Clara Hernandez and Ulla, portrays a simple man from the countryside, played by actor Orestes Matacena, who is brutalized by his experiences with the revolutionary government in Cuba. The reactionary stance of directors like Villa, Ulla, Ichaso, Almendros and Jiménez Leal has made them the cinematic spokespersons for Cubans who believe that Fidel Castro is personally responsible for negative changes that have occurred in Cuba since 1959. Bitter Sugar has been shown to the Human Rights Commission in Geneva, Switzerland and to the US Congress. An important theme in cinema of the Cuban diaspora is the coming and going of people in exile, and the difficult process of adaptation to a new culture. Iván Acosta made the film Amigos (1986) to show the painful bicultural existence of Cuban Americans living in Miami. Although it is a low budget film, it does an effective job of capturing the problems of the younger generation of Cuban Americans who are torn between the desire to fit in and the pressure to uphold tradition. Lejanía (1985) by Jesús Díaz is the first film to deal with the issue of Cuban exiles returning to the island for visits with relatives. Cercanía (2008) by Rolando Díaz, the brother of Jesús, shows a recent arrival from Cuba attempting to reconcile with his family in Miami after decades apart. Rather than address political themes in a direct way, these films focus on personal issues related to adaptation and culture shock. Honey for Oshún (2001) by Humberto Solás, a Cuban director who remained in Cuba, addresses the clash between Cuban Americans returning to the island and those who never left. It hints that reconciliation is possible, as long as those who return are willing to accept Cuba on its own terms and not force capitalist ideology on the Cuban people. In Cuba, films made by Cuban Americans or Cubans in exile are not widely distributed or well known, in part because the films deal with the Revolution in a negative light, but also because Cubans on the island dispute the notion of a Cuban diaspora and believe that those who live in exile no longer represent Cuban reality in an authentic light. They take the position that directors who experience life outside Cuba represent Cuba through a distorted lens, and that the films they make are largely works of propaganda. Many important Cuban actors now live in exile. Among them are César Évora, Anabel Leal, Reinaldo Cruz, Francisco Gattorno, Reynaldo Miravalles, Tomás Millán, William Marquez, Orestes Matacena and Isabel Moreno. Cuban American actors who were born in Cuba but grew up in the U. S. include Andy García, Steven Bauer, William Levy, and Tony Plana.
Международные копродукции
Международное совместное производство фильмов стало очень важным для кинематографа Кубы и всей Латинской Америки. Международный совместный фильм – это фильм, в котором участвуют две или более производственных компаний из разных стран, либо финансирование поступает из нескольких стран. Совместные производства становятся все более распространенными, однако они были обычным явлением между Кубой и Мексикой еще в 1948 году. Международные совместные проекты начали активно развиваться в 1960-х и 1970-х годах, часто с целью повышения политической осведомленности и привлечения внимания к общим проблемам стран Латинской Америки. До своего распада СССР также участвовал в совместном производстве фильмов на Кубе, например, «Я – Куба» Михаила Калатозова. Возросшая значимость совместных фильмов была неизбежна в условиях глобализации, а в случае Кубы – особенно из-за нехватки экономических ресурсов. Фильм, созданный в сотрудничестве двух или более стран, почти всегда гарантирует дистрибуцию в обеих странах, что приводит к расширению аудитории и увеличению доходов. Это также способствует большей известности региональных кинематографий. Испания начала участвовать в производстве латиноамериканских и кубинских фильмов еще в 1930-х годах, но более активно инвестировать стала в 1990-х. В 1997 году была создана Ibermedia с целью стимулирования совместного производства между Испанией и странами Латинской Америки. В этой организации участвуют 14 стран, включая Кубу. Два примера кубинских совместных фильмов – «Сесилия» (Куба/Испания) и «Клубника и шоколад» (Куба/Мексика/Испания) Томаса Гутиереса Алеа и Хуана Карлоса Табио, номинированный на премию «Оскар». О развитии совместного производства существуют разные мнения. Для некоторых это вынужденная мера. Хумберто Солас отмечает: «Для признанных режиссеров нет ни цента на производство. Мы вынуждены искать совместные проекты. Если фильм не будет создан в сотрудничестве, он просто не будет снят». Проблема поиска иностранного финансирования для кубинских фильмов заключается в том, что финансирующие стороны часто стремятся оказать определенное влияние на конечный продукт, чтобы обеспечить его успех в своих странах. Зачастую предъявляются требования о включении в съемочную группу определенного числа актеров и специалистов из каждой страны-производителя. Например, кубинский фильм, созданный в сотрудничестве с Испанией, должен будет задействовать определенное количество испанских актеров, сценаристов, режиссеров или технических специалистов. Это затрудняет сохранение самобытности кубинского национального кино и создает проблемы с определением национальности фильма. Хулио Гарсиа Эспиноса согласен с тем, что преимущество совместного производства заключается в том, что оно позволяет продолжать снимать фильмы на Кубе и в Латинской Америке, но считает, что наиболее успешными являются проекты, реализуемые исключительно между странами Латинской Америки. Куба оказывала помощь в производстве других латиноамериканских фильмов, но в основном в виде технической поддержки, а не финансового участия. Примером может служить фильм чилийского режиссера Мигеля Литтина «Альсино и кондор», снятый в Никарагуа при технической поддержке Кубы. Кроме того, в конце 1980-х годов на Кубе была создана Школа кино Третьего мира для обучения студентов из стран третьего мира искусству кинопроизводства.