Вирус Хендра: симптомы, переносчики (летучие мыши) и вспышки в Австралии. Опасный зоонозный вирус, поражающий лошадей и людей. Информация о Henipavirus.
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Содержание
Введение
Вид вируса
Species of virus
Вирус Хендра (Hendra henipavirus) – это зоонозный вирус, обнаруженный исключительно в Австралии. Впервые выделенный в 1994 году, с тех пор он был связан с многочисленными вспышками заболевания у домашних лошадей и семью случаями заражения людей. Вирус Хендра относится к роду Henipavirus, в который также входит зоонозный вирус Нипах. Резервуаром вируса Хендра служат четыре вида летучих мышей рода Pteropus, обитающих в Австралии.
Hendra virus (Hendra henipavirus) is a zoonotic virus found solely in Australia. First isolated in 1994, the virus has since been connected to numerous outbreaks of disease in domestic horses and seven human cases. Hendra virus belongs to the genus Henipavirus, which also contains the zoonotic Nipah virus. The reservoir species of Hendra virus are four species of bat within the genus Pteropus native to Australia.
Патология
У летающих лис, экспериментально инфицированных вирусом Хендра, развивается вирусемия и они выделяют вирус с мочой, фекалиями и слюной в течение примерно одной недели. Других признаков заболевания у них не наблюдается. Симптомы инфекции вирусом Хендра у людей могут быть респираторными, включая кровоизлияния и отек легких, или, в некоторых случаях, вирусный менингит. У лошадей инфекция обычно проявляется одним или несколькими из следующих симптомов: отек легких, застой и неврологические признаки. Эфрин B2 был идентифицирован как основной рецептор для хенипавирусов.
Flying foxes experimentally infected with the Hendra virus develop a viraemia and shed the virus in their urine, faeces and saliva for approximately one week. There is no other indication of an illness in them. Symptoms of Hendra virus infection of humans may be respiratory, including hemorrhage and edema of the lungs, or in some cases viral meningitis. In horses, infection usually causes one or more of pulmonary oedema, congestion and neurological signs. Ephrin B2 has been identified as the main receptor for the henipaviruses.
Трансмиссия
Летающие лисы были идентифицированы как резервуар вируса Хендра. У летающих лис обнаружена серопревалентность в 47%, что указывает на эндемическую инфекцию популяции этих животных по всей Австралии. Лошади заражаются вирусом Хендра при контакте с биологическими жидкостями инфицированной летающей лисы. Это часто происходит через мочу, фекалии или разжеванные фрукты, покрытые слюной летающей лисы, когда лошади пасутся под местами их ночлега. В 2021 году в Австралии был идентифицирован новый вариант вируса Хендра, названный "генотип вируса Хендра 2" (HeV g2), у двух видов летающих лис. Он обладает 84% гомологией последовательностей с другими опубликованными геномами вируса Хендра.
Flying foxes have been identified as the reservoir host of Hendra virus. A seroprevalence of 47% is found in the flying foxes, suggesting an endemic infection of the bat population throughout Australia. Horses become infected with Hendra after exposure to bodily fluid from an infected flying fox. This often happens in the form of urine, feces, or masticated fruit covered in the flying fox's saliva when horses graze below roosting sites. In 2021 a new variant of Hendra virus named "Hendra virus genotype 2" (HeV g2) was identified in two flying fox species in Australia. It shares 84% sequence homology to other published Hendra virus genomes.
Профилактика, выявление и лечение
В настоящее время для снижения риска для человека используются три основных подхода. Вакцина для лошадей. В ноябре 2012 года вакцина стала доступна для лошадей. Вакцина предназначена для использования только у лошадей, поскольку, по словам ветеринарного патолога CSIRO доктора Деборы Миддлтон, прерывание цикла передачи от летающих лис к лошадям предотвращает ее передачу людям, а также, "разработка вакцины для людей займет еще много лет". Вакцина представляет собой субединичную вакцину, нейтрализующую вирус Хендра, и состоит из растворимой версии G-поверхностного антигена вируса Хендра, успешно протестированная на моделях хорьков. К декабрю 2014 года около 300 000 доз было введено более чем 100 000 лошадям. Около 3 из 1000 сообщили об инцидентах, в основном – локальные отеки в месте инъекции. О смертельных случаях не сообщалось. В августе 2015 года Австралийское управление по контролю за пестицидами и ветеринарными препаратами (APVMA) зарегистрировало вакцину. В своем заявлении австралийское правительственное агентство опубликовало все данные о зарегистрированных побочных эффектах. В январе 2016 года APVMA одобрило ее применение у беременных кобыл. Экспресс-тест для быстрой диагностики заболевания у лошадей. Хотя исследования по обнаружению вируса Хендра продолжаются, перспективные результаты были получены с использованием антител, конъюгированных с магнитными частицами и квантовыми точками. Лечение после контакта для человека. Вирусы Нипа и Хендра – близкородственные парамиксовирусы, впервые обнаруженные у летучих мышей в 1990-х годах, вызывающие смертельные вспышки у людей и домашних животных. Национальный институт аллергии и инфекционных заболеваний (NIAID) поддержал разработку вакцин против вирусов Нипа и Хендра на основе растворимых G-гликопротеинов вирусов в сочетании с адъювантами. Обе вакцины показали способность индуцировать сильные нейтрализующие антитела у различных лабораторных животных. В 2015 году начались испытания моноклонального антитела в качестве возможного дополнительного лечения для людей, подвергшихся воздействию вируса Хендра от инфицированных лошадей. Влияние обезлесения. При рассмотрении любого зооноза необходимо понимать социальные, экологические и биологические факторы, способствующие передаче. Считается, что вирус Хендра частично связан с сезонностью, и предполагается корреляция между периодом размножения и увеличением заболеваемости вирусом Хендра у летучих лисиц. Кроме того, недавние исследования показывают, что увеличение вырубки лесов в Австралии может приводить к росту заболеваемости вирусом Хендра. Летучие лисы большую часть года питаются на деревьях. Однако из-за недостатка определенных плодовых деревьев в этом районе они вынуждены перемещаться и, следовательно, чаще контактируют с лошадьми. Две последние вспышки вируса Хендра в 2011 и 2013 годах, по-видимому, связаны с повышенным уровнем пищевого стресса среди летучих мышей, а также с перемещением их популяций. В настоящее время проводятся работы по увеличению охвата вакцинацией лошадей и восстановлению этих важных лесов в качестве кормовой базы для летучих лисиц. Эти меры направлены на снижение заболеваемости высоколетальным вирусом Хендра. Первичный случай, кобыла по кличке Drama Series, привезенная с пастбища в Каннон-Хилл, была помещена вместе с 19 другими лошадьми после того, как заболела, и умерла через два дня. Впоследствии все лошади заболели, 13 из них погибли. Оставшиеся шесть животных были впоследствии усыплены, чтобы предотвратить рецидив инфекции и возможную дальнейшую передачу. Вторая вспышка произошла в августе 1994 года (хронологически предшествовала первой вспышке) в Макае, в 1000 км к северу от Брисбена, в результате чего погибли две лошади и их владелец. Владелец помогал в проведении вскрытий лошадей и через три недели был госпитализирован с менингитом. Он выздоровел, но через 14 месяцев у него появились неврологические симптомы, и он умер. Эта вспышка была диагностирована ретроспективно на основании обнаружения вируса Хендра в мозге пациента.
Three main approaches are currently followed to reduce the risk to humans. Vaccine for horses. In November 2012, a vaccine became available for horses. The vaccine is to be used in horses only, since, according to CSIRO veterinary pathologist Dr Deborah Middleton, breaking the transmission cycle from flying foxes to horses prevents it from passing to humans, as well as, "a vaccine for people would take many more years." The vaccine is a subunit vaccine that neutralises Hendra virus and is composed of a soluble version of the G surface antigen on Hendra virus and has been successful in ferret models. By December 2014, about 300 000 doses had been administered to more than 100 000 horses. About 3 in 1000 had reported incidents; the majority being localised swelling at the injection site. There had been no reported deaths. In August 2015, the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) registered the vaccine. In its statement the Australian government agency released all its data on reported side effects. In January 2016, APVMA approved its use in pregnant mares. Stall side test to assist in diagnosing the disease in horses rapidly. Although the research on the Hendra virus detection is ongoing, a promising result has found using antibody conjugated magnetic particles and quantum dots. Post exposure treatment for humans. Nipah virus and Hendra virus are closely related paramyxoviruses that emerged from bats during the 1990s to cause deadly outbreaks in humans and domesticated animals. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) supported investigators developed vaccines for Nipah and Hendra virus based on the soluble G glycoproteins of the viruses formulated with adjuvants. Both vaccines have been shown to induce strong neutralizing antibodies in different laboratory animals. Trials began in 2015 to evaluate a monoclonal antibody to be used as a possible complementary treatment for humans exposed to Hendra virus infected horses. Deforestation Impact. When considering any zoonosis, one must understand the social, ecological, and biological contributions that may be facilitating this spillover. Hendra virus is believed to be partially seasonally related, and there is a suggested correlation between breeding time and an increase in the incidence of Hendra virus in flying fox bats. Additionally, recent research suggests that the upsurge in deforestation within Australia may be leading to an increase in the incidence of Hendra virus. Flying fox bats tend to feed in trees during a large part of the year. However, due to the lack of specific fruit trees within the area, these bats are having to relocate and thereby are coming into contact with horses more often. The two most recent outbreaks of Hendra virus in 2011 and 2013 appear to be related to an increased level of nutritional stress among the bats as well as relocation of bat populations. Work is currently being done to increase vaccination among horses as well as replant these important forests as feeding grounds for the flying fox bats. Through these measures, the goal is to decrease the incidences of the highly fatal Hendra virus. The index case, a mare called Drama Series, brought in from a paddock in Cannon Hill, was housed with 19 other horses after falling ill, and died two days later. Subsequently, all of the horses became ill, with 13 dying. The remaining six animals were subsequently euthanised as a way of preventing relapsing infection and possible further transmission. A second outbreak occurred in August 1994 (chronologically preceding the first outbreak) in Mackay 1,000 km north of Brisbane resulting in the deaths of two horses and their owner. The owner assisted in necropsies of the horses, and within three weeks was admitted to hospital suffering from meningitis. He recovered, but 14 months later developed neurologic signs and died. This outbreak was diagnosed retrospectively by the presence of Hendra virus in the brain of the patient.
Вспышка в Австралии
По состоянию на июнь 2014 года в Австралии было зарегистрировано в общей сложности пятьдесят вспышек вируса Хендра, все из которых связаны с заражением лошадей. В результате этих событий погибло или было усыплено восемьдесят три лошади. Еще четыре лошади погибли или были усыплены в результате возможного заражения вирусом Хендра. Летальность среди людей составляет 60%, а среди лошадей – 75%. Четыре вспышки привели к заражению людей в результате прямого контакта с инфицированными лошадьми. 26 июля 2011 года сообщалось об обнаружении антител к вирусу Хендра у собаки, проживающей на территории Mt Alford – это первый случай выявления антител у животного, отличного от летучей лисы, лошади или человека, за пределами экспериментальных условий. Все эти события произошли на восточном побережье Австралии, самая северная вспышка зафиксирована в Кэрнсе (Квинсленд), а самая южная – в Кемпси (Новый Южный Уэльс). До вспышки в Чинчилле (Квинсленд) в июле 2011 года все очаги находились в ареале обитания как минимум двух из четырех континентальных летучих лис (крыланов): малого красного крылана (Pteropus scapulatus), черного крылана (Pteropus alecto), сероголового крылана (Pteropus poliocephalus) и очкового крылана (Pteropus conspicillatus). Считается, что Чинчилла находится только в ареале обитания малого красного крылана и западнее Великого Водораздельного хребта. Это самая западная точка, где когда-либо была выявлена инфекция у лошадей. Время возникновения случаев указывает на сезонность вспышек. Первоначально предполагалось, что это может быть связано с циклом размножения малых красных крыланов, которые обычно рожают в апреле-мае. Однако впоследствии очковый и черный крыланы были идентифицированы как виды, более вероятно участвующие в передаче инфекции. Время вспышек также, по всей видимости, связано с более прохладными месяцами, когда температура и влажность могут быть более благоприятными для длительного выживания вируса в окружающей среде. Нет доказательств передачи вируса людям непосредственно от летучих мышей, и, следовательно, представляется, что заражение людей происходит только через промежуточного хозяина – лошадь. Несмотря на это, в 2014 году правительство Нового Южного Уэльса одобрило уничтожение колоний крыланов.
As of June 2014, a total of fifty outbreaks of Hendra virus have occurred in Australia, all involving infection of horses. As a result of these events, eighty three horses have died or been euthanized. A further four died or were euthanized as a result of possible Hendra infection. Case fatality rate in humans is 60% and in horses 75%. Four of these outbreaks have spread to humans as a result of direct contact with infected horses. On 26 July 2011 a dog living on the Mt Alford property was reported to have HeV antibodies, the first time an animal other than a flying fox, horse, or human has tested positive outside an experimental situation. These events have all been on the east coast of Australia, with the most northern event at Cairns, Queensland and the event furthest south at Kempsey, New South Wales. Until the event at Chinchilla, Queensland in July 2011, all outbreak sites had been within the distribution of at least two of the four mainland flying foxes (fruit bats); Little red flying fox, (Pteropus scapulatus), black flying fox, (Pteropus alecto), grey headed flying fox, (Pteropus poliocephalus) and spectacled flying fox, (Pteropus conspicillatus). Chinchilla is considered to be only within the range of little red flying fox and is west of the Great Dividing Range. This is the furthest west the infection has ever been identified in horses. The timing of incidents indicates a seasonal pattern of outbreaks. Initially this was thought to possibly be related to the breeding cycle of the little red flying foxes. These species typically give birth between April and May. Subsequently, however, the Spectacled flying fox and the Black flying fox have been identified as the species more likely to be involved in infection spillovers. Timing of outbreaks also appears more likely during the cooler months when it is possible the temperature and humidity are more favourable to the longer term survival of the virus in the environment. There is no evidence of transmission to humans directly from bats, and, as such it appears that human infection only occurs via an intermediate host, a horse. Despite this in 2014 the NSW Government approved the destruction of flying fox colonies. List of Australian Hendra outbreaks List of Australian Hendra outbreaks Date Location Details Deaths (Human) Deaths (Horse)August 1994Mackay, QueenslandDeath of two horses and one person, Mark Preston.1October 2004Gordonvale, Cairns, QueenslandDeath of one horse. A veterinarian involved in autopsy of the horse was infected with Hendra virus, and suffered a mild illness.01December 2004Townsville, QueenslandDeath of one horse.1July 2007Peachester, Sunshine Coast, QueenslandInfection of one horse (euthanised)July 2007Clifton Beach, Cairns, QueenslandInfection of one horse (euthanised). July 2008Redlands, QueenslandDeath of five horses; four died from the Henda virus, the remaining animal recovered but was euthanised because of a government policy that requires all animals with antibodies to be euthanised due to a potential threat to health. Two veterinary workers from the affected property were infected leading to the death of one, veterinary surgeon Ben Cuneen, on 20 August 2008. The second veterinarian was hospitalized after pricking herself with a needle she had used to euthanize the horse that had recovered. A nurse exposed to the disease while assisting Cuneen in caring for the infected horses was also hospitalized. The Biosecurity Queensland website indicates that 8 horses died during this event, however a review of the event indicates that five horses are confirmed to have died from HeV and three of the horses "are regarded as improbable cases of Hendra virus infection ".14July 2008Proserpine, QueenslandDeath of four horses. On 1 September 2009 after two weeks in a coma, he became the fourth person to die from exposure to the virus.14September 2009Bowen, QueenslandDeath of two horses.120 June 2011 – 31 July 2011Mount Alford, QueenslandDeath of three horses (all confirmed to have died of Hendra) and sero conversion of a dog. The first horse death on this property occurred on 20 June 2011, although it was not until after the second death on 1 July 2011 that samples taken from the first animal were tested. The third horse was euthanised on 4 July 2011. On 26 July 2011 a dog from this property was reported to have tested positive for HeV antibodies. Reports indicate that this Australian Kelpie, a family companion, will be euthanised in line with government policy. Biosecurity Queensland suggest the dog most likely was exposed to HeV though one of the sick horses. Dusty was euthanised on 31 July 2011 following a second positive antibody test.326 June 2011Kerry, QueenslandThe horse was moved after it became sick to another property at Beaudesert, Queensland. Death of one horse.128 June 2011Loganlea, Logan City, QueenslandDeath of one horse. Unusually this horse had HeV antibodies present in its blood at the time of death. How this immune response should be interpreted is a matter of debate.129 June 2011Mcleans Ridges, Wollongbar, New South WalesDeath of one horse. The second horse on the property tested positive to Hendra and was euthanised on 12 July 2011.13 July 2011Macksville, New South WalesDeath of one horse.24 July 2011Park Ridge, Logan City, QueenslandDeath of one horse.111 July 2011Kuranda, QueenslandDeath of one horse.113 July 2011Hervey Bay, QueenslandDeath of one horse.114 July 2011Lismore, New South WalesDeath of one horse.115 July 2011Boondall, QueenslandDeath of one horse.122 July 2011Chinchilla, QueenslandDeath of one horse.124 July 2011Mullumbimby, New South WalesDeath of one horse.113 August 2011Mullumbimby, New South WalesDeath of one horse. A horse was found dead after being unwell the day before. HeV infection was confirmed on 17 August 2011.115 August 2011Ballina, New South WalesDeath of one horse.117 August 2011South Ballina, New South WalesDeath of two horses. The horses were found dead in a field. Both tested positive to HeV. The exact date of death is not known, but HeV infection was confirmed on 17 August 2011.128 August 2011North of Ballina, New South WalesDeath of one horse.111 October 2011Beachmere, Caboolture QueenslandOne horse euthanised after testing positive. A horse that died on the property one week before may have died of HeV. On 15 October 2011 another horse on the property was euthanised following a positive HeV antibody test.13 January 2012Townsville, QueenslandA horse that died or was euthanised on 3 January 2012 returned a positive HeV test on 5 January 2012.126 May 2012Rockhampton, QueenslandOne horse died.128 May 2012Ingham, QueenslandOne horse died.119 July 2012Rockhampton, QueenslandOne horse died. On 27 July it was announced that two other horses on the property, showing clinical signs of the disease, had been euthanised. Two dogs were assessed, and the property was quarantined.127 June 2012Mackay, QueenslandOne horse was euthanised after returning a positive HeV test. 15 horses on the property are being tested and quarantined, along with horses on neighbouring properties.127 July 2012Cairns, QueenslandOne horse died.15 September 2012Port Douglas, QueenslandOne horse died. The property with 13 other horses is quarantined.11 November 2012Ingham, QueenslandOne symptomatic horse euthanised. A test for HeV the following day proved positive. The property, with seven other horses, quarantined.120 January 2013Mackay, QueenslandOne horse died.119 February 2013Atherton Tablelands, North QueenslandOne horse died. Four horses and four people from the property were assessed.13 June 2013Macksville, New South WalesDeath of one horse, a second horse vaccinated, five cats and a dog were monitored.11 July 2013Tarampa, QueenslandOne horse died. HeV virus confirmed.14 July 2013Macksville, New South WalesSix year old gelding died. Several other horses, dogs and cats were tested. A dog from the property tested positive for HeV and was euthanised around 19 July 201315 July 2013Gold Coast, QueenslandOne horse died. No other horses on property.16 July 2013Kempsey, New South WalesEighteen year old unvaccinated mare died, other animals on property under observation.19 July 2013Kempsey, New South WalesThirteen year old unvaccinated quarterhorse died, other animals on property were put under observation.118 March 2014Bundaberg, QueenslandUnvaccinated horse euthanized. Tested positive for Hendra and was euthanized 11 June 2014Beenleigh, QueenslandHorse euthanised and property quarantined after outbreak at a property.20 Jun 2014Murwillumbah, New South WalesA 31 year old stock horse died in the early hours of 20 June.120 July 2014Calliope, Queensland Horse euthanised and property quarantined after outbreak.120 Jun 2015Murwillumbah, New South WalesHorse found dead after several days of illness. HeV confirmed as the cause of death.1About 20 July 2015 Atherton Tableland, QueenslandInfected horse died and property quarantined.1 About 4 September 2015Lismore, New South Wales Infected horse euthanised and property quarantined.1About 15 December 2016Casino, New South WalesHorse died around 15 December 2016 after being ill for several weeks.1 About 24 May 2017 Gold Coast, Queensland An unvaccinated infected horse euthanised and property quarantined. About 8 July 2017Lismore, New South Wales Hendra virus confirmed near Lismore after symptomatic horse tested positive for Hendra. About 1 August 2017Murwillumbah, New South Wales Hendra virus confirmed near Murwillumbah after symptomatic horse tested positive for the virus. NSW Department of Primary Industries identified this as the second Hendra case in NSW for the year 2017. About 5 August 2017Lismore, New South Wales Hendra case confirmed near Lismore results in euthanasia of symptomatic Welsh Pony. Property was placed under inspection. Third confirmed case in NSW in the span of four weeks. 7 June 2019Scone, New South WalesAn unvaccinated mare contracted Hendra and had to be euthanized. Quarantine protocols and assessments were completed on the property. Represents the Southernmost documented case of Hendra in horses. 1 3 June 2020Murwillumbah, New South WalesAn unvaccinated horse contracted Hendra and had to be euthanized. Represents the first documented case of 2020. 118 July
2023Newcastle, New South WalesAn unvaccinated horse died from a case of symptomatic Hendra. Property was accessed for risks and no transmitted cases were identified.1
Список вспышек вируса Хендра в Австралии
As of June 2014, a total of fifty outbreaks of Hendra virus have occurred in Australia, all involving infection of horses. As a result of these events, eighty three horses have died or been euthanized. A further four died or were euthanized as a result of possible Hendra infection. Case fatality rate in humans is 60% and in horses 75%. Four of these outbreaks have spread to humans as a result of direct contact with infected horses. On 26 July 2011 a dog living on the Mt Alford property was reported to have HeV antibodies, the first time an animal other than a flying fox, horse, or human has tested positive outside an experimental situation. These events have all been on the east coast of Australia, with the most northern event at Cairns, Queensland and the event furthest south at Kempsey, New South Wales. Until the event at Chinchilla, Queensland in July 2011, all outbreak sites had been within the distribution of at least two of the four mainland flying foxes (fruit bats); Little red flying fox, (Pteropus scapulatus), black flying fox, (Pteropus alecto), grey headed flying fox, (Pteropus poliocephalus) and spectacled flying fox, (Pteropus conspicillatus). Chinchilla is considered to be only within the range of little red flying fox and is west of the Great Dividing Range. This is the furthest west the infection has ever been identified in horses. The timing of incidents indicates a seasonal pattern of outbreaks. Initially this was thought to possibly be related to the breeding cycle of the little red flying foxes. These species typically give birth between April and May. Subsequently, however, the Spectacled flying fox and the Black flying fox have been identified as the species more likely to be involved in infection spillovers. Timing of outbreaks also appears more likely during the cooler months when it is possible the temperature and humidity are more favourable to the longer term survival of the virus in the environment. There is no evidence of transmission to humans directly from bats, and, as such it appears that human infection only occurs via an intermediate host, a horse. Despite this in 2014 the NSW Government approved the destruction of flying fox colonies. List of Australian Hendra outbreaks List of Australian Hendra outbreaks Date Location Details Deaths (Human) Deaths (Horse)August 1994Mackay, QueenslandDeath of two horses and one person, Mark Preston.1October 2004Gordonvale, Cairns, QueenslandDeath of one horse. A veterinarian involved in autopsy of the horse was infected with Hendra virus, and suffered a mild illness.01December 2004Townsville, QueenslandDeath of one horse.1July 2007Peachester, Sunshine Coast, QueenslandInfection of one horse (euthanised)July 2007Clifton Beach, Cairns, QueenslandInfection of one horse (euthanised). July 2008Redlands, QueenslandDeath of five horses; four died from the Henda virus, the remaining animal recovered but was euthanised because of a government policy that requires all animals with antibodies to be euthanised due to a potential threat to health. Two veterinary workers from the affected property were infected leading to the death of one, veterinary surgeon Ben Cuneen, on 20 August 2008. The second veterinarian was hospitalized after pricking herself with a needle she had used to euthanize the horse that had recovered. A nurse exposed to the disease while assisting Cuneen in caring for the infected horses was also hospitalized. The Biosecurity Queensland website indicates that 8 horses died during this event, however a review of the event indicates that five horses are confirmed to have died from HeV and three of the horses "are regarded as improbable cases of Hendra virus infection ".14July 2008Proserpine, QueenslandDeath of four horses. On 1 September 2009 after two weeks in a coma, he became the fourth person to die from exposure to the virus.14September 2009Bowen, QueenslandDeath of two horses.120 June 2011 – 31 July 2011Mount Alford, QueenslandDeath of three horses (all confirmed to have died of Hendra) and sero conversion of a dog. The first horse death on this property occurred on 20 June 2011, although it was not until after the second death on 1 July 2011 that samples taken from the first animal were tested. The third horse was euthanised on 4 July 2011. On 26 July 2011 a dog from this property was reported to have tested positive for HeV antibodies. Reports indicate that this Australian Kelpie, a family companion, will be euthanised in line with government policy. Biosecurity Queensland suggest the dog most likely was exposed to HeV though one of the sick horses. Dusty was euthanised on 31 July 2011 following a second positive antibody test.326 June 2011Kerry, QueenslandThe horse was moved after it became sick to another property at Beaudesert, Queensland. Death of one horse.128 June 2011Loganlea, Logan City, QueenslandDeath of one horse. Unusually this horse had HeV antibodies present in its blood at the time of death. How this immune response should be interpreted is a matter of debate.129 June 2011Mcleans Ridges, Wollongbar, New South WalesDeath of one horse. The second horse on the property tested positive to Hendra and was euthanised on 12 July 2011.13 July 2011Macksville, New South WalesDeath of one horse.24 July 2011Park Ridge, Logan City, QueenslandDeath of one horse.111 July 2011Kuranda, QueenslandDeath of one horse.113 July 2011Hervey Bay, QueenslandDeath of one horse.114 July 2011Lismore, New South WalesDeath of one horse.115 July 2011Boondall, QueenslandDeath of one horse.122 July 2011Chinchilla, QueenslandDeath of one horse.124 July 2011Mullumbimby, New South WalesDeath of one horse.113 August 2011Mullumbimby, New South WalesDeath of one horse. A horse was found dead after being unwell the day before. HeV infection was confirmed on 17 August 2011.115 August 2011Ballina, New South WalesDeath of one horse.117 August 2011South Ballina, New South WalesDeath of two horses. The horses were found dead in a field. Both tested positive to HeV. The exact date of death is not known, but HeV infection was confirmed on 17 August 2011.128 August 2011North of Ballina, New South WalesDeath of one horse.111 October 2011Beachmere, Caboolture QueenslandOne horse euthanised after testing positive. A horse that died on the property one week before may have died of HeV. On 15 October 2011 another horse on the property was euthanised following a positive HeV antibody test.13 January 2012Townsville, QueenslandA horse that died or was euthanised on 3 January 2012 returned a positive HeV test on 5 January 2012.126 May 2012Rockhampton, QueenslandOne horse died.128 May 2012Ingham, QueenslandOne horse died.119 July 2012Rockhampton, QueenslandOne horse died. On 27 July it was announced that two other horses on the property, showing clinical signs of the disease, had been euthanised. Two dogs were assessed, and the property was quarantined.127 June 2012Mackay, QueenslandOne horse was euthanised after returning a positive HeV test. 15 horses on the property are being tested and quarantined, along with horses on neighbouring properties.127 July 2012Cairns, QueenslandOne horse died.15 September 2012Port Douglas, QueenslandOne horse died. The property with 13 other horses is quarantined.11 November 2012Ingham, QueenslandOne symptomatic horse euthanised. A test for HeV the following day proved positive. The property, with seven other horses, quarantined.120 January 2013Mackay, QueenslandOne horse died.119 February 2013Atherton Tablelands, North QueenslandOne horse died. Four horses and four people from the property were assessed.13 June 2013Macksville, New South WalesDeath of one horse, a second horse vaccinated, five cats and a dog were monitored.11 July 2013Tarampa, QueenslandOne horse died. HeV virus confirmed.14 July 2013Macksville, New South WalesSix year old gelding died. Several other horses, dogs and cats were tested. A dog from the property tested positive for HeV and was euthanised around 19 July 201315 July 2013Gold Coast, QueenslandOne horse died. No other horses on property.16 July 2013Kempsey, New South WalesEighteen year old unvaccinated mare died, other animals on property under observation.19 July 2013Kempsey, New South WalesThirteen year old unvaccinated quarterhorse died, other animals on property were put under observation.118 March 2014Bundaberg, QueenslandUnvaccinated horse euthanized. Tested positive for Hendra and was euthanized 11 June 2014Beenleigh, QueenslandHorse euthanised and property quarantined after outbreak at a property.20 Jun 2014Murwillumbah, New South WalesA 31 year old stock horse died in the early hours of 20 June.120 July 2014Calliope, Queensland Horse euthanised and property quarantined after outbreak.120 Jun 2015Murwillumbah, New South WalesHorse found dead after several days of illness. HeV confirmed as the cause of death.1About 20 July 2015 Atherton Tableland, QueenslandInfected horse died and property quarantined.1 About 4 September 2015Lismore, New South Wales Infected horse euthanised and property quarantined.1About 15 December 2016Casino, New South WalesHorse died around 15 December 2016 after being ill for several weeks.1 About 24 May 2017 Gold Coast, Queensland An unvaccinated infected horse euthanised and property quarantined. About 8 July 2017Lismore, New South Wales Hendra virus confirmed near Lismore after symptomatic horse tested positive for Hendra. About 1 August 2017Murwillumbah, New South Wales Hendra virus confirmed near Murwillumbah after symptomatic horse tested positive for the virus. NSW Department of Primary Industries identified this as the second Hendra case in NSW for the year 2017. About 5 August 2017Lismore, New South Wales Hendra case confirmed near Lismore results in euthanasia of symptomatic Welsh Pony. Property was placed under inspection. Third confirmed case in NSW in the span of four weeks. 7 June 2019Scone, New South WalesAn unvaccinated mare contracted Hendra and had to be euthanized. Quarantine protocols and assessments were completed on the property. Represents the Southernmost documented case of Hendra in horses. 1 3 June 2020Murwillumbah, New South WalesAn unvaccinated horse contracted Hendra and had to be euthanized. Represents the first documented case of 2020. 118 July
2023Newcastle, New South WalesAn unvaccinated horse died from a case of symptomatic Hendra. Property was accessed for risks and no transmitted cases were identified.1
Дата Местоположение Подробности Смерть (человек) Смерть (лошадь)
Август 1994 Маккей, Квинсленд Гибель двух лошадей и одного человека, Марка Престона. 1
Октябрь 2004 Гордонвейл, Кэрнс, Квинсленд Гибель одной лошади. Ветеринар, участвовавший в вскрытии лошади, заразился вирусом Хендра и перенес легкое заболевание. 0
Декабрь 2004 Таунсвилл, Квинсленд Гибель одной лошади. 1
Июль 2007 Пичестер, Саншайн-Кост, Квинсленд Заражение одной лошади (усыплена).
Июль 2007 Клифтон-Бич, Кэрнс, Квинсленд Заражение одной лошади (усыплена).
Июль 2008 Редлендс, Квинсленд Гибель пяти лошадей; четверо умерли от вируса Хендра, оставшееся животное выздоровело, но было усыплено в соответствии с государственной политикой, требующей усыпления всех животных с антителами из-за потенциальной угрозы для здоровья. Два ветеринарных работника с пораженного объекта заразились, что привело к смерти одного из них, ветеринарного хирурга Бена Кунина, 20 августа 2008 года. Второй ветеринар был госпитализирован после укола иглой, которой она усыпляла выздоровевшую лошадь. Медсестра, подвергшаяся воздействию болезни при уходе за инфицированными лошадьми вместе с Кунином, также была госпитализирована. На сайте Biosecurity Queensland указано, что во время этого события погибли 8 лошадей, однако обзор события показывает, что пять лошадей умерли от вируса Хендра, а три лошади "считаются маловероятными случаями заражения вирусом Хендра". 1
Июль 2008 Прозерпин, Квинсленд Гибель четырех лошадей. 1 сентября 2009 года, после двух недель комы, он стал четвертым человеком, умершим от воздействия вируса. 1
Сентябрь 2009 Боуэн, Квинсленд Гибель двух лошадей. 1
20 июня 2011 – 31 июля 2011 Гора Альфорд, Квинсленд Гибель трех лошадей (все подтверждено, что умерли от Хендры) и сероконверсия собаки. Первая смерть лошади на этом участке произошла 20 июня 2011 года, хотя образцы, взятые у первого животного, были исследованы только после второй смерти 1 июля 2011 года. Третья лошадь была усыплена 4 июля 2011 года. 26 июля 2011 года сообщалось, что собака с этого участка дала положительный результат на антитела к вирусу Хендра. По сообщениям, этот австралийский келпи, домашний компаньон, будет усыплен в соответствии с государственной политикой. Biosecurity Queensland предполагает, что собака, скорее всего, подверглась воздействию вируса Хендра через одну из больных лошадей. Дасти был усыплен 31 июля 2011 года после повторного положительного теста на антитела. 0
26 июня 2011 Керри, Квинсленд Лошадь была перемещена после того, как заболела, на другое хозяйство в Бодесерт, Квинсленд. Гибель одной лошади. 1
28 июня 2011 Логанлеа, Логан-Сити, Квинсленд Гибель одной лошади. Необычно, что у этой лошади в крови присутствовали антитела к вирусу Хендра на момент смерти. Интерпретация этого иммунного ответа является предметом споров. 0
29 июня 2011 Маклинс-Риджес, Уоллонгар, Новый Южный Уэльс Гибель одной лошади. Вторая лошадь на участке дала положительный результат на вирус Хендра и была усыплена 12 июля 2011 года. 0
3 июля 2011 Максвилл, Новый Южный Уэльс Гибель одной лошади. 2
4 июля 2011 Парк-Ридж, Логан-Сити, Квинсленд Гибель одной лошади. 1
11 июля 2011 Куранда, Квинсленд Гибель одной лошади. 1
13 июля 2011 Херви-Бей, Квинсленд Гибель одной лошади. 1
14 июля 2011 Лизмор, Новый Южный Уэльс Гибель одной лошади. 1
15 июля 2011 Бундалл, Квинсленд Гибель одной лошади. 1
22 июля 2011 Чинчилла, Квинсленд Гибель одной лошади. 1
24 июля 2011 Маллумбимби, Новый Южный Уэльс Гибель одной лошади. 1
13 августа 2011 Маллумбимби, Новый Южный Уэльс Гибель одной лошади. Лошадь была найдена мертвой после того, как накануне почувствовала себя плохо. Инфекция вирусом Хендра была подтверждена 17 августа 2011 года. 1
15 августа 2011 Баллина, Новый Южный Уэльс Гибель одной лошади. 1
17 августа 2011 Южная Баллина, Новый Южный Уэльс Гибель двух лошадей. Лошади были найдены мертвыми в поле. Обе дали положительный результат на вирус Хендра. Точная дата смерти неизвестна, но инфекция вирусом Хендра была подтверждена 17 августа 2011 года. 0
28 августа 2011 К северу от Баллины, Новый Южный Уэльс Гибель одной лошади. 1
11 октября 2011 Бичмер, Кабультур, Квинсленд Одна лошадь была усыплена после положительного теста. Лошадь, которая умерла на участке за неделю до этого, могла умереть от вируса Хендра. 15 октября 2011 года еще одна лошадь на участке была усыплена после положительного теста на антитела к вирусу Хендра. 0
3 января 2012 Таунсвилл, Квинсленд Лошадь, которая умерла или была усыплена 3 января 2012 года, дала положительный результат на вирус Хендра 5 января 2012 года. 1
26 мая 2012 Рокхемптон, Квинсленд Одна лошадь умерла. 1
28 мая 2012 Инхэм, Квинсленд Одна лошадь умерла. 1
19 июля 2012 Рокхемптон, Квинсленд Одна лошадь умерла. 27 июля было объявлено, что две другие лошади на участке, проявляющие клинические признаки заболевания, были усыплены. Были обследованы две собаки, и участок был помещен на карантин. 0
27 июня 2012 Маккей, Квинсленд Одна лошадь была усыплена после положительного теста на вирус Хендра. 15 лошадей на участке проходят тестирование и находятся на карантине, а также лошади на соседних участках. 0
27 июля 2012 Кэрнс, Квинсленд Одна лошадь умерла. 1
5 сентября 2012 Порт-Дуглас, Квинсленд Одна лошадь умерла. Участок с 13 другими лошадьми находится на карантине. 1
1 ноября 2012 Инхэм, Квинсленд Одна лошадь с симптомами была усыплена. Тест на вирус Хендра на следующий день оказался положительным. Участок с семью другими лошадьми помещен на карантин. 0
20 января 2013 Маккей, Квинсленд Одна лошадь умерла. 1
19 февраля 2013 Атертон Тейбллендс, Северный Квинсленд Одна лошадь умерла. Четыре лошади и четыре человека с участка были обследованы. 0
3 июня 2013 Максвилл, Новый Южный Уэльс Гибель одной лошади, вторая лошадь была вакцинирована, пять кошек и собака находились под наблюдением. 0
1 июля 2013 Тарампа, Квинсленд Одна лошадь умерла. Вирус Хендра подтвержден. 1
4 июля 2013 Максвилл, Новый Южный Уэльс Шестилетний жеребец умер. Несколько других лошадей, собак и кошек были протестированы. Собака с участка дала положительный результат на вирус Хендра и была усыплена около 19 июля... 0
As of June 2014, a total of fifty outbreaks of Hendra virus have occurred in Australia, all involving infection of horses. As a result of these events, eighty three horses have died or been euthanized. A further four died or were euthanized as a result of possible Hendra infection. Case fatality rate in humans is 60% and in horses 75%. Four of these outbreaks have spread to humans as a result of direct contact with infected horses. On 26 July 2011 a dog living on the Mt Alford property was reported to have HeV antibodies, the first time an animal other than a flying fox, horse, or human has tested positive outside an experimental situation. These events have all been on the east coast of Australia, with the most northern event at Cairns, Queensland and the event furthest south at Kempsey, New South Wales. Until the event at Chinchilla, Queensland in July 2011, all outbreak sites had been within the distribution of at least two of the four mainland flying foxes (fruit bats); Little red flying fox, (Pteropus scapulatus), black flying fox, (Pteropus alecto), grey headed flying fox, (Pteropus poliocephalus) and spectacled flying fox, (Pteropus conspicillatus). Chinchilla is considered to be only within the range of little red flying fox and is west of the Great Dividing Range. This is the furthest west the infection has ever been identified in horses. The timing of incidents indicates a seasonal pattern of outbreaks. Initially this was thought to possibly be related to the breeding cycle of the little red flying foxes. These species typically give birth between April and May. Subsequently, however, the Spectacled flying fox and the Black flying fox have been identified as the species more likely to be involved in infection spillovers. Timing of outbreaks also appears more likely during the cooler months when it is possible the temperature and humidity are more favourable to the longer term survival of the virus in the environment. There is no evidence of transmission to humans directly from bats, and, as such it appears that human infection only occurs via an intermediate host, a horse. Despite this in 2014 the NSW Government approved the destruction of flying fox colonies. List of Australian Hendra outbreaks List of Australian Hendra outbreaks Date Location Details Deaths (Human) Deaths (Horse)August 1994Mackay, QueenslandDeath of two horses and one person, Mark Preston.1October 2004Gordonvale, Cairns, QueenslandDeath of one horse. A veterinarian involved in autopsy of the horse was infected with Hendra virus, and suffered a mild illness.01December 2004Townsville, QueenslandDeath of one horse.1July 2007Peachester, Sunshine Coast, QueenslandInfection of one horse (euthanised)July 2007Clifton Beach, Cairns, QueenslandInfection of one horse (euthanised). July 2008Redlands, QueenslandDeath of five horses; four died from the Henda virus, the remaining animal recovered but was euthanised because of a government policy that requires all animals with antibodies to be euthanised due to a potential threat to health. Two veterinary workers from the affected property were infected leading to the death of one, veterinary surgeon Ben Cuneen, on 20 August 2008. The second veterinarian was hospitalized after pricking herself with a needle she had used to euthanize the horse that had recovered. A nurse exposed to the disease while assisting Cuneen in caring for the infected horses was also hospitalized. The Biosecurity Queensland website indicates that 8 horses died during this event, however a review of the event indicates that five horses are confirmed to have died from HeV and three of the horses "are regarded as improbable cases of Hendra virus infection ".14July 2008Proserpine, QueenslandDeath of four horses. On 1 September 2009 after two weeks in a coma, he became the fourth person to die from exposure to the virus.14September 2009Bowen, QueenslandDeath of two horses.120 June 2011 – 31 July 2011Mount Alford, QueenslandDeath of three horses (all confirmed to have died of Hendra) and sero conversion of a dog. The first horse death on this property occurred on 20 June 2011, although it was not until after the second death on 1 July 2011 that samples taken from the first animal were tested. The third horse was euthanised on 4 July 2011. On 26 July 2011 a dog from this property was reported to have tested positive for HeV antibodies. Reports indicate that this Australian Kelpie, a family companion, will be euthanised in line with government policy. Biosecurity Queensland suggest the dog most likely was exposed to HeV though one of the sick horses. Dusty was euthanised on 31 July 2011 following a second positive antibody test.326 June 2011Kerry, QueenslandThe horse was moved after it became sick to another property at Beaudesert, Queensland. Death of one horse.128 June 2011Loganlea, Logan City, QueenslandDeath of one horse. Unusually this horse had HeV antibodies present in its blood at the time of death. How this immune response should be interpreted is a matter of debate.129 June 2011Mcleans Ridges, Wollongbar, New South WalesDeath of one horse. The second horse on the property tested positive to Hendra and was euthanised on 12 July 2011.13 July 2011Macksville, New South WalesDeath of one horse.24 July 2011Park Ridge, Logan City, QueenslandDeath of one horse.111 July 2011Kuranda, QueenslandDeath of one horse.113 July 2011Hervey Bay, QueenslandDeath of one horse.114 July 2011Lismore, New South WalesDeath of one horse.115 July 2011Boondall, QueenslandDeath of one horse.122 July 2011Chinchilla, QueenslandDeath of one horse.124 July 2011Mullumbimby, New South WalesDeath of one horse.113 August 2011Mullumbimby, New South WalesDeath of one horse. A horse was found dead after being unwell the day before. HeV infection was confirmed on 17 August 2011.115 August 2011Ballina, New South WalesDeath of one horse.117 August 2011South Ballina, New South WalesDeath of two horses. The horses were found dead in a field. Both tested positive to HeV. The exact date of death is not known, but HeV infection was confirmed on 17 August 2011.128 August 2011North of Ballina, New South WalesDeath of one horse.111 October 2011Beachmere, Caboolture QueenslandOne horse euthanised after testing positive. A horse that died on the property one week before may have died of HeV. On 15 October 2011 another horse on the property was euthanised following a positive HeV antibody test.13 January 2012Townsville, QueenslandA horse that died or was euthanised on 3 January 2012 returned a positive HeV test on 5 January 2012.126 May 2012Rockhampton, QueenslandOne horse died.128 May 2012Ingham, QueenslandOne horse died.119 July 2012Rockhampton, QueenslandOne horse died. On 27 July it was announced that two other horses on the property, showing clinical signs of the disease, had been euthanised. Two dogs were assessed, and the property was quarantined.127 June 2012Mackay, QueenslandOne horse was euthanised after returning a positive HeV test. 15 horses on the property are being tested and quarantined, along with horses on neighbouring properties.127 July 2012Cairns, QueenslandOne horse died.15 September 2012Port Douglas, QueenslandOne horse died. The property with 13 other horses is quarantined.11 November 2012Ingham, QueenslandOne symptomatic horse euthanised. A test for HeV the following day proved positive. The property, with seven other horses, quarantined.120 January 2013Mackay, QueenslandOne horse died.119 February 2013Atherton Tablelands, North QueenslandOne horse died. Four horses and four people from the property were assessed.13 June 2013Macksville, New South WalesDeath of one horse, a second horse vaccinated, five cats and a dog were monitored.11 July 2013Tarampa, QueenslandOne horse died. HeV virus confirmed.14 July 2013Macksville, New South WalesSix year old gelding died. Several other horses, dogs and cats were tested. A dog from the property tested positive for HeV and was euthanised around 19 July 201315 July 2013Gold Coast, QueenslandOne horse died. No other horses on property.16 July 2013Kempsey, New South WalesEighteen year old unvaccinated mare died, other animals on property under observation.19 July 2013Kempsey, New South WalesThirteen year old unvaccinated quarterhorse died, other animals on property were put under observation.118 March 2014Bundaberg, QueenslandUnvaccinated horse euthanized. Tested positive for Hendra and was euthanized 11 June 2014Beenleigh, QueenslandHorse euthanised and property quarantined after outbreak at a property.20 Jun 2014Murwillumbah, New South WalesA 31 year old stock horse died in the early hours of 20 June.120 July 2014Calliope, Queensland Horse euthanised and property quarantined after outbreak.120 Jun 2015Murwillumbah, New South WalesHorse found dead after several days of illness. HeV confirmed as the cause of death.1About 20 July 2015 Atherton Tableland, QueenslandInfected horse died and property quarantined.1 About 4 September 2015Lismore, New South Wales Infected horse euthanised and property quarantined.1About 15 December 2016Casino, New South WalesHorse died around 15 December 2016 after being ill for several weeks.1 About 24 May 2017 Gold Coast, Queensland An unvaccinated infected horse euthanised and property quarantined. About 8 July 2017Lismore, New South Wales Hendra virus confirmed near Lismore after symptomatic horse tested positive for Hendra. About 1 August 2017Murwillumbah, New South Wales Hendra virus confirmed near Murwillumbah after symptomatic horse tested positive for the virus. NSW Department of Primary Industries identified this as the second Hendra case in NSW for the year 2017. About 5 August 2017Lismore, New South Wales Hendra case confirmed near Lismore results in euthanasia of symptomatic Welsh Pony. Property was placed under inspection. Third confirmed case in NSW in the span of four weeks. 7 June 2019Scone, New South WalesAn unvaccinated mare contracted Hendra and had to be euthanized. Quarantine protocols and assessments were completed on the property. Represents the Southernmost documented case of Hendra in horses. 1 3 June 2020Murwillumbah, New South WalesAn unvaccinated horse contracted Hendra and had to be euthanized. Represents the first documented case of 2020. 118 July
2023Newcastle, New South WalesAn unvaccinated horse died from a case of symptomatic Hendra. Property was accessed for risks and no transmitted cases were identified.1
События июня-августа 2011 года
В период с 1994 по 2010 год было зарегистрировано четырнадцать случаев. В период с 20 июня 2011 года по 28 августа 2011 года было выявлено еще семнадцать случаев, в ходе которых погибло двадцать одна лошадь. Неясно, почему произошло внезапное увеличение числа случаев передачи вируса Хендра с июня по август 2011 года. Обычно случаи передачи вируса Хендра чаще встречаются в период с мая по октябрь. Это время иногда называют "сезоном Хендра", когда большое количество плодовых летучих мышей всех видов собираются в ценной зимней кормовой среде юго-восточного Квинсленда. Погода (теплая и влажная) благоприятствует выживанию генипавируса в окружающей среде. В настоящее время считается, что эти случаи не связаны с мутацией самого вируса Хендра. Другие предположения включают в себя то, что увеличение количества исследований привело к увеличению числа выявленных случаев. Поскольку точный механизм передачи вируса между летучими мышами и лошадьми не установлен, неясно, какие факторы, если таковые имеются, могут повысить риск заражения лошадей. После подтверждения наличия антител к вирусу Хендра у собаки 27 июля 2011 года правительства Квинсленда и Нового Южного Уэльса увеличат финансирование исследований вируса Хендра на 6 миллионов долларов, которые будут использованы до 2014–2015 годов. Эти средства будут направлены на изучение экологических факторов, влияющих на заражение летучих мышей, и механизма передачи вируса между летучими мышами и другими видами. Федеральное правительство выделило дополнительные 6 миллионов долларов, которые будут распределены поровну между исследованиями в области здоровья человека и исследованиями в области здоровья животных и биоразнообразия.
In the years 1994–2010, fourteen events were recorded. Between 20 June 2011 and 28 August 2011, a further seventeen events were identified, during which twenty one horses died. It is not clear why there was a sudden increase in the number of spillover events between June and August 2011. Typically HeV spillover events are more common between May and October. This time is sometimes called "Hendra Season", which is a time when there are large numbers of fruit bats of all species congregated in SE Queensland's valuable winter foraging habitat. The weather (warm and humid) is favourable to the survival of henipavirus in the environment. Present advice is that these events are not being driven by any mutation in HeV itself. Other suggestions include that an increase in testing has led to an increase in detection. As the actual mode of transmission between bats and horses has not been determined, it is not clear what, if any, factors can increase the chance of infection in horses. Following the confirmation of a dog with HeV antibodies, on 27 July 2011, the Queensland and NSW governments will boost research funding into the Hendra virus by $6 million to be spent by 2014–2015. This money will be used for research into ecological drivers of infection in the bats and the mechanism of virus transmission between bats and other species. A further 6 million dollars was allocated by the federal government with the funds being split, half for human health investigations and half for animal health and biodiversity research.