Осложнения беременности, родов и послеродового периода.

Complications of pregnancy are health problems that are related to, or arise during pregnancy. Complications that occur primarily during childbirth are termed obstetric labor complications, and problems that occur primarily after childbirth are termed puerperal disorders. While some complications improve or are fully resolved after pregnancy, some may lead to lasting effects, morbidity, or in the most severe cases, maternal or fetal mortality. Common complications of pregnancy include anemia, gestational diabetes, infections, gestational hypertension and pre eclampsia. Presence of these types of complications can have implications on monitoring lab work, imaging, and medical management during pregnancy. and in 1.5% of mothers in Canada. In the immediate postpartum period (puerperium), 87% to 94% of women report at least one health problem. Long term health problems (persisting after six months postpartum) are reported by 31% of women. In 2016, complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium resulted globally in 230,600 deaths, down from 377,000 deaths in 1990. The most common causes of maternal mortality are maternal bleeding, postpartum infections including sepsis, hypertensive diseases of pregnancy, obstructed labor, and unsafe abortion. Complications of pregnancy can sometimes arise from abnormally severe presentations of symptoms and discomforts of pregnancy, which usually do not significantly interfere with activities of daily living or pose any significant threat to the health of the birthing person or fetus. For example, morning sickness is a fairly common mild symptom of pregnancy that generally resolves in the second trimester, but hyperemesis gravidarum is a severe form of this symptom that sometimes requires medical intervention to prevent electrolyte imbalances from severe vomiting.

The following problems originate in the mother, however, they may have serious consequences for the fetus as well.

Gestational diabetes is when a woman, without a previous diagnosis of diabetes, develops high blood sugar levels during pregnancy. There is an elevated demand for insulin during pregnancy which leads to increased insulin production from pancreatic beta cells. The elevated demand is a result of increased maternal calorie intake and weight gain, and increased production of prolactin and growth hormone. Gestational diabetes increases risk for further maternal and fetal complications such as development of pre eclampsia, need for cesarean delivery, preterm delivery, polyhydramnios, macrosomia, shoulder dystocia, fetal hypoglycemia, hyperbilirubinemia, and admission into the neonatal intensive care unit. The increased risk is correlated with the how well the gestational diabetes is controlled during pregnancy with poor control associated with worsened outcomes. A multidisciplinary approach is used to treat gestational diabetes and involves monitoring of blood glucose levels, nutritional and dietary modifications, lifestyle changes such as increasing physical activity, maternal weight management, and medication such as insulin. It is estimated to affect 0.3–3.6% of pregnant women and is the greatest contributor to hospitalizations under 20 weeks of gestation. Most often, nausea and vomiting symptoms during pregnancy resolve in the first trimester, however, some continue to experience symptoms. Hyperemesis gravidarum is diagnosed by the following criteria: greater than 3 vomiting episodes per day, ketonuria, and weight loss of more than 3 kg or 5% of body weight. There are several non modifiable and modifiable risk factors that predispose women to development of this condition such as female fetus, psychiatric illness history, high or low BMI pre pregnancy, young age, African American or Asian ethnicity, type I diabetes, multiple pregnancies, and history of pregnancy affected by hyperemesis gravidarum. There are currently no known mechanisms for the cause of this condition. This complication can cause nutritional deficiency, low pregnancy weight gain, dehydration, and vitamin, electrolyte, and acid based disturbances in the mother. It has been shown to cause low birth weight, small gestational age, preterm birth, and poor APGAR scores in the infant. Treatments for this condition focus on preventing harm to the fetus while improving symptoms and commonly include fluid replacement and consumption of small, frequent, bland meals. First line treatments include ginger and acupuncture. Second line treatments include vitamin B6 +/ doxylamine, antihistamines, dopamine antagonists, and serotonin antagonists. Third line treatments include corticosteroids, transdermal clonidine, and gabapentin. Treatments chosen are dependent on severity of symptoms and response to therapies.

Pelvic girdle pain (PGP) disorder is pain in the area between the posterior iliac crest and gluteal fold beginning peri or postpartum caused by instability and limitation of mobility. It is associated with pubic symphysis pain and sometimes radiation of pain down the hips and thighs. For most pregnant individuals, PGP resolves within three months following delivery, but for some it can last for years, resulting in a reduced tolerance for weight bearing activities. PGP affects around 45% of individuals during pregnancy: 25% report serious pain and 8% are severely disabled. Risk factors for complication development include multiparity, increased BMI, physically strenuous work, smoking, distress, history of back and pelvic trauma, and previous history of pelvic and lower back pain. This syndrome results from a growing uterus during pregnancy that causes increased stress on the lumbar and pelvic regions of the mother, thereby, resulting in postural changes and reduced lumbopelvic muscle strength leading to pelvic instability and pain. It is unclear whether specific hormones in pregnancy are associated with complication development. PGP can result in poor quality of life, predisposition to chronic pain syndrome, extended leave from work, and psychosocial distress. Many treatment options are available based on symptom severity. Non invasive treatment options include activity modification, pelvic support garments, analgesia with or without short periods of bed rest, and physiotherapy to increase strength of gluteal and adductor muscles reducing stress on the lumbar spine. Invasive surgical management is considered a last line treatment if all other treatment modalities have failed and symptoms are severe. Eclampsia – seizures in a pre eclamptic patient, affect around 1.4% of pregnancies. Gestational hypertension can develop after 20 weeks but has no other symptoms, and later rights itself, but it can develop into pre eclampsia. HELLP syndrome – Hemolytic anemia, elevated liver enzymes and a low platelet count. Incidence is reported as 0.5–0.9% of all pregnancies. Acute fatty liver of pregnancy is sometimes included in the pre eclamptic spectrum. It occurs in approximately one in 7,000 to one in 15,000 pregnancies. Women who have chronic hypertension before their pregnancy are at increased risk of complications such as premature birth, low birthweight or stillbirth. Women who have high blood pressure and had complications in their pregnancy have three times the risk of developing cardiovascular disease compared to women with normal blood pressure who had no complications in pregnancy. Monitoring pregnant women's blood pressure can help prevent both complications and future cardiovascular diseases.

Venous thromboembolism, consisting of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism, is a major risk factor for postpartum morbidity and mortality, especially in highly developed countries. A combination of pregnancy exacerbated hypercoagulability and additional risk factors such as obesity and thrombophilias makes pregnant women vulnerable to thrombotic events T. he prophylactic measures that include the usage of low molecular weight heparin, in fact, can significantly reduce risks associated with surgery, particularly in high risk patients. Awareness among healthcare givers and prompt response in early identification and management of venous thromboembolism during pregnancy and the postpartum period are both crucial for prompt response. Deep vein thrombosis, a form of venous thromboembolism, has an incidence of 0.5 to 7 per 1,000 pregnancies, and is the second most common cause of maternal death in developed countries after bleeding. Caused by: Pregnancy induced hypercoagulability as a physiological response in preparation for the potential bleeding during childbirth. As an additional measure, emphasis is placed on the astute determination of the respective triggering points, and the application of optimal prenatal care to better maternal and fetal outcome. Levels of hemoglobin are lower in the third trimesters. According to the United Nations (UN) estimates, approximately half of pregnant individuals develop anemia worldwide. Anemia prevalences during pregnancy differed from 18% in developed countries to 75% in South Asia; culminating to a global rate of 38% of pregnancies world wide. Treatment varies due to the severity of the anaemia, and can be used by increasing iron containing foods, oral iron tablets or by the use of parenteral iron. Avoidance actions like vaccines and strict infectious control protocols can be given priority in the policies aimed at limiting the risk of transmission among high risk populations. In addition, it is early diagnosis and management of maternal infections are among the main methods to flatline vertical transmission and fetal aberrations. A pregnant woman is more susceptible to certain infections. This increased risk is caused by an increased immune tolerance in pregnancy to prevent an immune reaction against the fetus, as well as secondary to maternal physiological changes including a decrease in respiratory volumes and urinary stasis due to an enlarging uterus. Pregnant individuals are more severely affected by, for example, influenza, hepatitis E, herpes simplex and malaria. Some infections are vertically transmissible, meaning that they can affect the child as well.

Peripartum cardiomyopathy is a heart failure caused by a decrease in left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) to <45% which occurs towards the end of pregnancy or a few months postpartum. Symptoms include shortness of breath in various positions and/or with exertion, fatigue, pedal edema, and chest tightness. Risk factors associated with the development of this complication include maternal age over 30 years, multi gestational pregnancy, family history of cardiomyopathy, previous diagnosis of cardiomyopathy, pre eclampsia, hypertension, and African ancestry. The pathogenesis of peripartum cardiomyopathy is not yet known, however, it is suggested that multifactorial potential causes could include autoimmune processes, viral myocarditis, nutritional deficiencies, and maximal cardiovascular changes during which increase cardiac preload. Peripartum cardiomyopathy can lead to many complications such as cardiopulmonary arrest, pulmonary edema, thromboembolisms, brain injury, and death. Treatment of this condition is very similar to treatment of non gravid heart failure patients, however, safety of the fetus must be prioritized. For example, for anticoagulation due to increased risk for thromboembolism, low molecular weight heparin which is safe for use during pregnancy is used instead of warfarin which crosses the placenta.

Hypothyroidism (commonly caused by Hashimoto's disease) is an autoimmune disease that affects the thyroid by causing low thyroid hormone levels. Symptoms of hypothyroidism can include low energy, cold intolerance, muscle cramps, constipation, and memory and concentration problems. It is diagnosed by the presence of elevated levels of thyroid stimulation hormone or TSH. Patients with elevated TSH and decreased levels of free thyroxine or T4 are considered to have overt hypothyroidism. While those with elevated TSH and normal levels of free T4 are considered to have subclinical hypothyroidism. Risk factors for developing hypothyroidism during pregnancy include iodine deficiency, history of thyroid disease, visible goiter, hypothyroidism symptoms, family history of thyroid disease, history of type 1 diabetes or autoimmune conditions, and history of infertility or fetal loss. Various hormones during pregnancy affect the thyroid and increase thyroid hormone demand. For example, during pregnancy, there is increased urinary iodine excretion as well as increased thyroxine binding globulin and thyroid hormone degradation which all increase thyroid hormone demands. This condition can have a profound effect during pregnancy on the mother and fetus. The infant may be seriously affected and have a variety of birth defects. Complications in the mother and fetus can include pre eclampsia, anemia, miscarriage, low birth weight, still birth, congestive heart failure, impaired neurointellectual development, and if severe, congenital iodine deficiency syndrome. Treatment: In most cases, keyhole surgery must be carried out to remove the fetus, along with the fallopian tube. If the pregnancy is very early, it may resolve on its own, or it can be treated with methotrexate, an abortifacient.

Miscarriage is the loss of a pregnancy prior to 20 weeks. In the UK, miscarriage is defined as the loss of a pregnancy during the first 23 weeks. Comprehensive support, consists of the consultation of the genomics as well as the provision of the medical or surgical operations required. The psychological relevance of family members, relatives, and friends to the bereaved ones is also a necessity. The most effective tools that can be used to minimize the psychological implications of the mourners include autopsy and bereavement counseling. Approximately 80% of pregnancy loss occurs in the first trimester, with a decrease in risk after 12 weeks gestation. Some variables, such as the mother’s being older or chromosomal abnormalities, possess a higher likelihood of causing multiple miscarriages. Spontaneous abortions can be further categorized into complete, inevitable, missed, and threatened abortions:
Complete: Vaginal bleeding occurs followed by the complete passing of conception products through the cervix. Inevitable: Vaginal bleeding occurs; the cervical os is closed indicating that conception products will pass in the near future. Missed: Vaginal bleeding occurs and some products of conception may have passed through the cervix; the cervical os is closed and ultrasound shows a nonviable fetus and remaining products of conception. Threatened: Vaginal bleeding occurs; the cervical os is closed and ultrasound shows a viable fetus.

Stillbirth is defined as fetal loss or death after 20 weeks gestation. Early stillbirth is between 20 and 27 weeks gestation, while late stillbirth is between 28 and 36 weeks gestation. A term stillbirth is when the fetus dies 37 weeks and above. This phenomenon can go beyond grief and can lead to worries about strange maternal feelings or postpartum treatment regarding complications of childbirth. Such parents would require more than empathy; generally, adequate medical programs should be considered for parents having such unbearable grief. Along with psychiatric help, counseling, and peer support, which should be useful in the process of assisting parents who have lost their children. Epidemiology: There are over 2 million stillbirths a year and there are about 6 stillbirths per 1000 births (0.6%)
Clinical presentation: Fetal behavioral changes like decreased movements or a loss in fetal sensation may indicate stillbirth, but the presentation can vary greatly. Risk factors: Maternal weight, age, and smoking, as well as pre existing maternal diabetes or hypertension Symptomatic presentations are variable: Some women can entirely ignore the symptoms, while others have mild bleeding or abdominal discomfort and pain. Hence, though symptom severity variance and precipitous placental separation are not relevant, they can still cause the diagnosis and clinical management to be complicated. Several contributors may result in placental abruption. This includes: pre existing maternal factors (e. g., smoking, hypertension, advanced age), as well as pregnancy related factors such as multiple pregnancies or the presence of in utero infections. Identifying risk factors beforehand in order to take steps and make quick reactions to minimize the likelihood of unfavorable outcomes for the mother or the fetus is essential. The therapy techniques of placental rupture are based on the fetal gestation age and the status of both the mother and the baby. Instant delivery should be medically warranted for full term babies (36 weeks or more) and in case of distress. Milder cases with immature embryos being monitored closely, any necessary intervention is done in time after careful observation. The implementation of preventive measures, which include pre conception counseling to deal with the modifiable risk factors, can significantly contribute to the reduction of incidents of placental abruption. Knowing the long term impacts on the mother and the baby after giving birth is essential. Continuous research and evidence based approaches help in providing management that works. Collaboration between healthcare providers and patients is the core of the outcomes of placenta abruption. Clinical Presentation: Varies widely from asymptomatic to vaginal bleeding and abdominal pain. Risk factors: Prior abruption, smoking, trauma, cocaine use, multifetal gestation, hypertension, preeclampsia, thrombophilias, advanced maternal age, preterm premature rupture of membranes, intrauterine infections, and hydramnios. Treatment: Immediate delivery if the fetus is mature (36 weeks or older), or if a younger fetus or the mother is in distress. In less severe cases with immature fetuses, the situation may be monitored in hospital, with treatment if necessary.

Placenta previa is a condition that occurs when the placenta fully or partially covers the cervix.

Placenta accreta is an abnormal adherence of the placenta to the uterine wall. Specifically, placenta accreta involves abnormal adherence of the placental trophoblast to the uterine myometrium. Placenta accreta risk factors include placenta previa, abnormally elevated second trimester AFP and free β hCG levels, and advanced gestational parent age, specifically over the age of 35. Furthermore, prior cesarean delivery is one of the most common risk factors for placenta accreta, due to the presence of a uterine scar leading to abnormal decidualization of the placenta. Due to abnormal adherence of the placenta to the uterine wall, cesarean delivery is often indicated, as well as cesarean hysterectomy. Moreover, early detection and response to the health problems arising from multiple pregnancies can help both the expectant parents and medical care providers deal with this particular aspect of reproductive health consciously.

Factors increasing the risk (to either the pregnant individual, the fetus/es, or both) of pregnancy complications beyond the normal level of risk may be present in the pregnant individual's medical profile either before they become pregnant or during the pregnancy. These pre existing factors may related to the individual's genetics, physical or mental health, their environment and social issues, or a combination of those.

Some disorders and conditions can mean that pregnancy is considered high risk (about 6 8% of pregnancies in the USA) and in extreme cases may be contraindicated. High risk pregnancies are the main focus of doctors specialising in maternal fetal medicine. Serious pre existing disorders which can reduce a woman's physical ability to survive pregnancy include a range of congenital defects (that is, conditions with which the woman herself was born, for example, those of the heart or reproductive organs, some of which are listed above) and diseases acquired at any time during the woman's life.