Сравнивайте с английским: нажмите на абзац — оригинал откроется в окне. Кнопка EN под абзацем показывает его прямо в тексте.
Содержание
Введение
Вид птицы
Species of bird
Коричневый пеликан (Pelecanus occidentalis) — птица семейства пеликановых (Pelecanidae), один из трёх видов, встречающихся в Америке, и один из двух, которые добывают пищу, ныряя в воду. Он обитает на Атлантическом побережье от Нью-Джерси до устья реки Амазонки и вдоль Тихоокеанского побережья от Британской Колумбии до Перу, включая Галапагосские острова. Номинативный подвид в брачном оперении имеет белую голову с желтоватым оттенком на макушке. Затылок и шея тёмно-каштановые. Верхняя часть шеи украшена белыми полосами вдоль основания глоточного мешка, а нижняя передняя часть шеи — бледно-жёлтым пятном. Самцы и самки похожи, но самка немного меньше. Взрослая птица в небрачном оперении имеет белую голову и шею. Розовая кожа вокруг глаз становится тусклой и серой в небрачный период. Отсутствует какой-либо красный оттенок, а глоточный мешок имеет выраженный оливково-охристый цвет, а ноги — от оливково-серого до чёрно-серого. Коричневый пеликан питается преимущественно рыбой, но иногда употребляет в пищу земноводных, ракообразных, а также яйца и птенцов других птиц. Он гнездится колониями в уединённых местах, часто на островах, на заросшей растительностью земле среди песчаных дюн, в зарослях кустарников и деревьев, а также в мангровых зарослях. Самки откладывают два или три овальных, мелово-белых яйца. Инкубация длится 28–30 дней, обязанности по высиживанию разделяют оба родителя. Вылупившиеся птенцы розовые, которые в течение 4–14 дней становятся серыми или чёрными. Для оперения птенцов требуется около 63 дней. Через 6–9 недель после вылупления молодые птицы покидают гнездо и собираются в небольшие группы, называемые стаями. Коричневый пеликан является национальной птицей Сен-Мартена, Барбадоса, Сент-Китса и Невиса и Теркс и Кайкос, а также официальной государственной птицей Луизианы, изображённой на флаге, печати или гербе каждого из этих образований. Международный союз охраны природы отнёс этот вид к категории «вызывающие наименьшие опасения». С 1970 по 2009 год он был включён в список видов, находящихся под угрозой исчезновения в соответствии с Законом США об исчезающих видах, поскольку пестициды, такие как диэльдрин и ДДТ, угрожали его существованию в юго-восточных штатах и Калифорнии. В 1972 году использование ДДТ было запрещено во Флориде, а затем и во всех остальных штатах. С тех пор популяция коричневого пеликана увеличилась. В 1903 году Теодор Рузвельт учредил первый Национальный заповедник дикой природы — остров Пеликан во Флориде — для защиты этого вида от охотников.
The brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) is a bird of the pelican family, Pelecanidae, one of three species found in the Americas and one of two that feed by diving into water. It is found on the Atlantic Coast from New Jersey to the mouth of the Amazon River, and along the Pacific Coast from British Columbia to Peru, including the Galapagos Islands. The nominate subspecies in its breeding plumage has a white head with a yellowish wash on the crown. The nape and neck are dark maroon–brown. The upper sides of the neck have white lines along the base of the gular pouch, and the lower fore neck has a pale yellowish patch. The male and female are similar, but the female is slightly smaller. The nonbreeding adult has a white head and neck. The pink skin around the eyes becomes dull and gray in the nonbreeding season. It lacks any red hue, and the pouch is strongly olivaceous ochre tinged and the legs are olivaceous gray to blackish gray. The brown pelican mainly feeds on fish, but occasionally eats amphibians, crustaceans, and the eggs and nestlings of birds. It nests in colonies in secluded areas, often on islands, vegetated land among sand dunes, thickets of shrubs and trees, and mangroves. Females lay two or three oval, chalky white eggs. Incubation takes 28 to 30 days with both sexes sharing duties. The newly hatched chicks are pink, turning gray or black within 4 to 14 days. About 63 days are needed for chicks to fledge. Six to 9 weeks after hatching, the juveniles leave the nest, and gather into small groups known as pods. The brown pelican is the national bird of Saint Martin, Barbados, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and the Turks and Caicos Islands, and the official state bird of Louisiana, appearing on the flag, seal, or coat of arms of each. It has been rated as a species of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It was listed under the United States Endangered Species Act from 1970 to 2009, as pesticides such as dieldrin and DDT threatened its future in the Southeastern United States and California. In 1972, the use of DDT was banned in Florida, followed by the rest of the United States. Since then, the brown pelican's population has increased. In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt set aside the first National Wildlife Refuge, Florida's Pelican Island, to protect the species from hunters.
Таксономия
Коричневый пеликан был описан шведским зоологом Карлом Линнеем в 12-м издании его Systema Naturae в 1766 году, где ему было дано биноминальное название Pelecanus occidentalis. Он относится к кладе Нового Света в роде Pelecanus. Выделяют пять подвидов коричневого пеликана. По крайней мере, некоторые из этих подвидов генетически отличаются, несмотря на схожие фенотипы. Подвиды различаются по размеру, окраске горлового мешка (и других голых участков) в период размножения, а также по некоторым деталям брачного оперения и географическому ареалу.
The brown pelican was described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the 1766 12th edition of his Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name of Pelecanus occidentalis. It belongs to the New World clade of the genus Pelecanus. Five subspecies of the brown pelican are recognized. At least some of these subspecies are genetically distinct despite similar phenotypes. The subspecies differ from one another in size, coloration of the throat pouch (among other bare parts) in breeding condition, and/or certain breeding plumage details, as well as geographic range. Image Subspecies Distribution P. o. californicus (Ridgway, 1884) This subspecies breeds on the Pacific coast of California and Baja California, and south to Jalisco. Its non breeding range extends north along the Pacific coast to British Columbia, and south to Guatemala. It is rarely found in El Salvador. P. o. carolinensis (Gmelin, 1789) This subspecies breeds in the eastern United States from Maryland south along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Caribbean coasts and south to Honduras and its Pacific coasts, Costa Rica, and Panama. Its non breeding range is from southern New York to Venezuela. P. o. occidentalis (Linnaeus, 1766) This subspecies breeds in the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Bahamas, and along the Caribbean coast of the West Indies, Colombia, and Venezuela, up to Trinidad and Tobago. P. o. murphyi (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found from western Colombia to Ecuador, and is a non breeding visitor to northern Peru. P. o. urinator (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found on the Galapagos Islands. The brown pelican is part of a clade that includes the Peruvian pelican (P. thagus) and American white pelican (P. erythrorhynchos); brown and Peruvian pelicans are sister taxa, with American white pelican a more distant relative. It measures in length and has a wingspan of Like all pelicans, it has a very long bill, measuring in length. at the bottom for draining water when it scoops out prey. The breast and belly are dark, and the legs and feet black. The nonbreeding adult has a white head and neck, and the pre breeding adult has a creamy yellow head. The pink skin around the eyes becomes dull and gray in the non breeding season. It lacks any red hue, and the pouch is strongly olivaceous ochre tinged and the legs are olivaceous gray to blackish gray. It has pale blue to yellowish white irides which become brown during the breeding season. During courtship, the bill becomes pinkish red to pale orange, redder at the tip, and the pouch is blackish. Later in the breeding season the bill becomes pale ash gray over most of the upper jaw and the basal third of the mandible. It and the Peruvian pelican are the only true marine pelican species. The brown pelican produces a wide variety of harsh, grunting sounds, such as a low pitched hrrraa hrra, during displays. On the Atlantic Coast, it is found from the New Jersey coast to the mouth of the Amazon River. After nesting, North American birds move in flocks further north along the coasts, returning to warmer waters for winter. In the non breeding season, it is found as far north as Canada. Small numbers of brown pelicans have been recorded from Arica in far northern Chile. Along the Gulf Coast, it inhabits Alabama, Texas, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Mexico. It is also found in mangrove swamps, and prefers shallow waters, especially near salty bays and beaches. In level flight, brown pelicans fly in groups, with their heads held back on their shoulders and their bills resting on their folded necks. They may fly in a V formation, but usually in regular lines or single file, often low over the water's surface. To exclude water from the nasal passage, they have narrower internal regions of the nostrils.
P. o. californicus (Ridgway, 1884) Этот подвид размножается на тихоокеанском побережье Калифорнии и Нижней Калифорнии, а также к югу до Халиско. Вне периода размножения его ареал простирается на север вдоль побережья Тихого океана до Британской Колумбии и на юг до Гватемалы. В Сальвадоре встречается редко.
The brown pelican was described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the 1766 12th edition of his Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name of Pelecanus occidentalis. It belongs to the New World clade of the genus Pelecanus. Five subspecies of the brown pelican are recognized. At least some of these subspecies are genetically distinct despite similar phenotypes. The subspecies differ from one another in size, coloration of the throat pouch (among other bare parts) in breeding condition, and/or certain breeding plumage details, as well as geographic range. Image Subspecies Distribution P. o. californicus (Ridgway, 1884) This subspecies breeds on the Pacific coast of California and Baja California, and south to Jalisco. Its non breeding range extends north along the Pacific coast to British Columbia, and south to Guatemala. It is rarely found in El Salvador. P. o. carolinensis (Gmelin, 1789) This subspecies breeds in the eastern United States from Maryland south along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Caribbean coasts and south to Honduras and its Pacific coasts, Costa Rica, and Panama. Its non breeding range is from southern New York to Venezuela. P. o. occidentalis (Linnaeus, 1766) This subspecies breeds in the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Bahamas, and along the Caribbean coast of the West Indies, Colombia, and Venezuela, up to Trinidad and Tobago. P. o. murphyi (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found from western Colombia to Ecuador, and is a non breeding visitor to northern Peru. P. o. urinator (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found on the Galapagos Islands. The brown pelican is part of a clade that includes the Peruvian pelican (P. thagus) and American white pelican (P. erythrorhynchos); brown and Peruvian pelicans are sister taxa, with American white pelican a more distant relative. It measures in length and has a wingspan of Like all pelicans, it has a very long bill, measuring in length. at the bottom for draining water when it scoops out prey. The breast and belly are dark, and the legs and feet black. The nonbreeding adult has a white head and neck, and the pre breeding adult has a creamy yellow head. The pink skin around the eyes becomes dull and gray in the non breeding season. It lacks any red hue, and the pouch is strongly olivaceous ochre tinged and the legs are olivaceous gray to blackish gray. It has pale blue to yellowish white irides which become brown during the breeding season. During courtship, the bill becomes pinkish red to pale orange, redder at the tip, and the pouch is blackish. Later in the breeding season the bill becomes pale ash gray over most of the upper jaw and the basal third of the mandible. It and the Peruvian pelican are the only true marine pelican species. The brown pelican produces a wide variety of harsh, grunting sounds, such as a low pitched hrrraa hrra, during displays. On the Atlantic Coast, it is found from the New Jersey coast to the mouth of the Amazon River. After nesting, North American birds move in flocks further north along the coasts, returning to warmer waters for winter. In the non breeding season, it is found as far north as Canada. Small numbers of brown pelicans have been recorded from Arica in far northern Chile. Along the Gulf Coast, it inhabits Alabama, Texas, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Mexico. It is also found in mangrove swamps, and prefers shallow waters, especially near salty bays and beaches. In level flight, brown pelicans fly in groups, with their heads held back on their shoulders and their bills resting on their folded necks. They may fly in a V formation, but usually in regular lines or single file, often low over the water's surface. To exclude water from the nasal passage, they have narrower internal regions of the nostrils.
P. o. carolinensis (Gmelin, 1789) Этот подвид размножается в восточной части Соединенных Штатов от Мэриленда на юг вдоль Атлантического, Мексиканского залива и Карибского побережья до Гондураса, а также на тихоокеанском побережье Коста-Рики и Панамы. Вне периода размножения его ареал простирается от южного Нью-Йорка до Венесуэлы.
The brown pelican was described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the 1766 12th edition of his Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name of Pelecanus occidentalis. It belongs to the New World clade of the genus Pelecanus. Five subspecies of the brown pelican are recognized. At least some of these subspecies are genetically distinct despite similar phenotypes. The subspecies differ from one another in size, coloration of the throat pouch (among other bare parts) in breeding condition, and/or certain breeding plumage details, as well as geographic range. Image Subspecies Distribution P. o. californicus (Ridgway, 1884) This subspecies breeds on the Pacific coast of California and Baja California, and south to Jalisco. Its non breeding range extends north along the Pacific coast to British Columbia, and south to Guatemala. It is rarely found in El Salvador. P. o. carolinensis (Gmelin, 1789) This subspecies breeds in the eastern United States from Maryland south along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Caribbean coasts and south to Honduras and its Pacific coasts, Costa Rica, and Panama. Its non breeding range is from southern New York to Venezuela. P. o. occidentalis (Linnaeus, 1766) This subspecies breeds in the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Bahamas, and along the Caribbean coast of the West Indies, Colombia, and Venezuela, up to Trinidad and Tobago. P. o. murphyi (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found from western Colombia to Ecuador, and is a non breeding visitor to northern Peru. P. o. urinator (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found on the Galapagos Islands. The brown pelican is part of a clade that includes the Peruvian pelican (P. thagus) and American white pelican (P. erythrorhynchos); brown and Peruvian pelicans are sister taxa, with American white pelican a more distant relative. It measures in length and has a wingspan of Like all pelicans, it has a very long bill, measuring in length. at the bottom for draining water when it scoops out prey. The breast and belly are dark, and the legs and feet black. The nonbreeding adult has a white head and neck, and the pre breeding adult has a creamy yellow head. The pink skin around the eyes becomes dull and gray in the non breeding season. It lacks any red hue, and the pouch is strongly olivaceous ochre tinged and the legs are olivaceous gray to blackish gray. It has pale blue to yellowish white irides which become brown during the breeding season. During courtship, the bill becomes pinkish red to pale orange, redder at the tip, and the pouch is blackish. Later in the breeding season the bill becomes pale ash gray over most of the upper jaw and the basal third of the mandible. It and the Peruvian pelican are the only true marine pelican species. The brown pelican produces a wide variety of harsh, grunting sounds, such as a low pitched hrrraa hrra, during displays. On the Atlantic Coast, it is found from the New Jersey coast to the mouth of the Amazon River. After nesting, North American birds move in flocks further north along the coasts, returning to warmer waters for winter. In the non breeding season, it is found as far north as Canada. Small numbers of brown pelicans have been recorded from Arica in far northern Chile. Along the Gulf Coast, it inhabits Alabama, Texas, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Mexico. It is also found in mangrove swamps, and prefers shallow waters, especially near salty bays and beaches. In level flight, brown pelicans fly in groups, with their heads held back on their shoulders and their bills resting on their folded necks. They may fly in a V formation, but usually in regular lines or single file, often low over the water's surface. To exclude water from the nasal passage, they have narrower internal regions of the nostrils.
P. o. occidentalis (Linnaeus, 1766) Этот подвид размножается на Больших и Малых Антильских островах, на Багамах, вдоль Карибского побережья Вест-Индии, Колумбии и Венесуэлы, до Тринидада и Тобаго.
The brown pelican was described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the 1766 12th edition of his Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name of Pelecanus occidentalis. It belongs to the New World clade of the genus Pelecanus. Five subspecies of the brown pelican are recognized. At least some of these subspecies are genetically distinct despite similar phenotypes. The subspecies differ from one another in size, coloration of the throat pouch (among other bare parts) in breeding condition, and/or certain breeding plumage details, as well as geographic range. Image Subspecies Distribution P. o. californicus (Ridgway, 1884) This subspecies breeds on the Pacific coast of California and Baja California, and south to Jalisco. Its non breeding range extends north along the Pacific coast to British Columbia, and south to Guatemala. It is rarely found in El Salvador. P. o. carolinensis (Gmelin, 1789) This subspecies breeds in the eastern United States from Maryland south along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Caribbean coasts and south to Honduras and its Pacific coasts, Costa Rica, and Panama. Its non breeding range is from southern New York to Venezuela. P. o. occidentalis (Linnaeus, 1766) This subspecies breeds in the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Bahamas, and along the Caribbean coast of the West Indies, Colombia, and Venezuela, up to Trinidad and Tobago. P. o. murphyi (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found from western Colombia to Ecuador, and is a non breeding visitor to northern Peru. P. o. urinator (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found on the Galapagos Islands. The brown pelican is part of a clade that includes the Peruvian pelican (P. thagus) and American white pelican (P. erythrorhynchos); brown and Peruvian pelicans are sister taxa, with American white pelican a more distant relative. It measures in length and has a wingspan of Like all pelicans, it has a very long bill, measuring in length. at the bottom for draining water when it scoops out prey. The breast and belly are dark, and the legs and feet black. The nonbreeding adult has a white head and neck, and the pre breeding adult has a creamy yellow head. The pink skin around the eyes becomes dull and gray in the non breeding season. It lacks any red hue, and the pouch is strongly olivaceous ochre tinged and the legs are olivaceous gray to blackish gray. It has pale blue to yellowish white irides which become brown during the breeding season. During courtship, the bill becomes pinkish red to pale orange, redder at the tip, and the pouch is blackish. Later in the breeding season the bill becomes pale ash gray over most of the upper jaw and the basal third of the mandible. It and the Peruvian pelican are the only true marine pelican species. The brown pelican produces a wide variety of harsh, grunting sounds, such as a low pitched hrrraa hrra, during displays. On the Atlantic Coast, it is found from the New Jersey coast to the mouth of the Amazon River. After nesting, North American birds move in flocks further north along the coasts, returning to warmer waters for winter. In the non breeding season, it is found as far north as Canada. Small numbers of brown pelicans have been recorded from Arica in far northern Chile. Along the Gulf Coast, it inhabits Alabama, Texas, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Mexico. It is also found in mangrove swamps, and prefers shallow waters, especially near salty bays and beaches. In level flight, brown pelicans fly in groups, with their heads held back on their shoulders and their bills resting on their folded necks. They may fly in a V formation, but usually in regular lines or single file, often low over the water's surface. To exclude water from the nasal passage, they have narrower internal regions of the nostrils.
P. o. murphyi (Wetmore, 1945) Этот подвид встречается от западной Колумбии до Эквадора и является негнездящимся гостем в северном Перу.
The brown pelican was described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the 1766 12th edition of his Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name of Pelecanus occidentalis. It belongs to the New World clade of the genus Pelecanus. Five subspecies of the brown pelican are recognized. At least some of these subspecies are genetically distinct despite similar phenotypes. The subspecies differ from one another in size, coloration of the throat pouch (among other bare parts) in breeding condition, and/or certain breeding plumage details, as well as geographic range. Image Subspecies Distribution P. o. californicus (Ridgway, 1884) This subspecies breeds on the Pacific coast of California and Baja California, and south to Jalisco. Its non breeding range extends north along the Pacific coast to British Columbia, and south to Guatemala. It is rarely found in El Salvador. P. o. carolinensis (Gmelin, 1789) This subspecies breeds in the eastern United States from Maryland south along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Caribbean coasts and south to Honduras and its Pacific coasts, Costa Rica, and Panama. Its non breeding range is from southern New York to Venezuela. P. o. occidentalis (Linnaeus, 1766) This subspecies breeds in the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Bahamas, and along the Caribbean coast of the West Indies, Colombia, and Venezuela, up to Trinidad and Tobago. P. o. murphyi (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found from western Colombia to Ecuador, and is a non breeding visitor to northern Peru. P. o. urinator (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found on the Galapagos Islands. The brown pelican is part of a clade that includes the Peruvian pelican (P. thagus) and American white pelican (P. erythrorhynchos); brown and Peruvian pelicans are sister taxa, with American white pelican a more distant relative. It measures in length and has a wingspan of Like all pelicans, it has a very long bill, measuring in length. at the bottom for draining water when it scoops out prey. The breast and belly are dark, and the legs and feet black. The nonbreeding adult has a white head and neck, and the pre breeding adult has a creamy yellow head. The pink skin around the eyes becomes dull and gray in the non breeding season. It lacks any red hue, and the pouch is strongly olivaceous ochre tinged and the legs are olivaceous gray to blackish gray. It has pale blue to yellowish white irides which become brown during the breeding season. During courtship, the bill becomes pinkish red to pale orange, redder at the tip, and the pouch is blackish. Later in the breeding season the bill becomes pale ash gray over most of the upper jaw and the basal third of the mandible. It and the Peruvian pelican are the only true marine pelican species. The brown pelican produces a wide variety of harsh, grunting sounds, such as a low pitched hrrraa hrra, during displays. On the Atlantic Coast, it is found from the New Jersey coast to the mouth of the Amazon River. After nesting, North American birds move in flocks further north along the coasts, returning to warmer waters for winter. In the non breeding season, it is found as far north as Canada. Small numbers of brown pelicans have been recorded from Arica in far northern Chile. Along the Gulf Coast, it inhabits Alabama, Texas, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Mexico. It is also found in mangrove swamps, and prefers shallow waters, especially near salty bays and beaches. In level flight, brown pelicans fly in groups, with their heads held back on their shoulders and their bills resting on their folded necks. They may fly in a V formation, but usually in regular lines or single file, often low over the water's surface. To exclude water from the nasal passage, they have narrower internal regions of the nostrils.
P. o. urinator (Wetmore, 1945) Этот подвид встречается на Галапагосских островах.
The brown pelican was described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the 1766 12th edition of his Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name of Pelecanus occidentalis. It belongs to the New World clade of the genus Pelecanus. Five subspecies of the brown pelican are recognized. At least some of these subspecies are genetically distinct despite similar phenotypes. The subspecies differ from one another in size, coloration of the throat pouch (among other bare parts) in breeding condition, and/or certain breeding plumage details, as well as geographic range. Image Subspecies Distribution P. o. californicus (Ridgway, 1884) This subspecies breeds on the Pacific coast of California and Baja California, and south to Jalisco. Its non breeding range extends north along the Pacific coast to British Columbia, and south to Guatemala. It is rarely found in El Salvador. P. o. carolinensis (Gmelin, 1789) This subspecies breeds in the eastern United States from Maryland south along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Caribbean coasts and south to Honduras and its Pacific coasts, Costa Rica, and Panama. Its non breeding range is from southern New York to Venezuela. P. o. occidentalis (Linnaeus, 1766) This subspecies breeds in the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Bahamas, and along the Caribbean coast of the West Indies, Colombia, and Venezuela, up to Trinidad and Tobago. P. o. murphyi (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found from western Colombia to Ecuador, and is a non breeding visitor to northern Peru. P. o. urinator (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found on the Galapagos Islands. The brown pelican is part of a clade that includes the Peruvian pelican (P. thagus) and American white pelican (P. erythrorhynchos); brown and Peruvian pelicans are sister taxa, with American white pelican a more distant relative. It measures in length and has a wingspan of Like all pelicans, it has a very long bill, measuring in length. at the bottom for draining water when it scoops out prey. The breast and belly are dark, and the legs and feet black. The nonbreeding adult has a white head and neck, and the pre breeding adult has a creamy yellow head. The pink skin around the eyes becomes dull and gray in the non breeding season. It lacks any red hue, and the pouch is strongly olivaceous ochre tinged and the legs are olivaceous gray to blackish gray. It has pale blue to yellowish white irides which become brown during the breeding season. During courtship, the bill becomes pinkish red to pale orange, redder at the tip, and the pouch is blackish. Later in the breeding season the bill becomes pale ash gray over most of the upper jaw and the basal third of the mandible. It and the Peruvian pelican are the only true marine pelican species. The brown pelican produces a wide variety of harsh, grunting sounds, such as a low pitched hrrraa hrra, during displays. On the Atlantic Coast, it is found from the New Jersey coast to the mouth of the Amazon River. After nesting, North American birds move in flocks further north along the coasts, returning to warmer waters for winter. In the non breeding season, it is found as far north as Canada. Small numbers of brown pelicans have been recorded from Arica in far northern Chile. Along the Gulf Coast, it inhabits Alabama, Texas, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Mexico. It is also found in mangrove swamps, and prefers shallow waters, especially near salty bays and beaches. In level flight, brown pelicans fly in groups, with their heads held back on their shoulders and their bills resting on their folded necks. They may fly in a V formation, but usually in regular lines or single file, often low over the water's surface. To exclude water from the nasal passage, they have narrower internal regions of the nostrils.
Коричневый пеликан входит в кладу, включающую перуанского пеликана (P. thagus) и американского белого пеликана (P. erythrorhynchos); коричневый и перуанский пеликаны являются сестринскими таксонами, а американский белый пеликан – более отдаленным родственником. Длина тела составляет, а размах крыльев –. Как и у всех пеликанов, у него очень длинный клюв длиной. На дне клюва имеется выемка для слива воды при захвате добычи. Грудь и брюхо темные, ноги и ступни черные. Взрослые особи вне периода размножения имеют белую голову и шею, а особи, готовящиеся к размножению, – кремово-желтую голову. Розовая кожа вокруг глаз становится тусклой и серой в негнездовой сезон. Красного оттенка нет, горловой мешок имеет выраженный оливково-охристый оттенок, а ноги – оливково-серые до черно-серых. Радужная оболочка бледно-голубая или желтовато-белая, в период размножения становится коричневой. Во время ухаживания клюв становится розовато-красным или бледно-оранжевым, с более ярким кончиком, а горловой мешок – черноватым. Позднее в период размножения клюв становится бледно-пепельно-серым на большей части верхней челюсти и на основной трети нижней челюсти. Он и перуанский пеликан – единственные настоящие морские виды пеликанов.
The brown pelican was described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the 1766 12th edition of his Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name of Pelecanus occidentalis. It belongs to the New World clade of the genus Pelecanus. Five subspecies of the brown pelican are recognized. At least some of these subspecies are genetically distinct despite similar phenotypes. The subspecies differ from one another in size, coloration of the throat pouch (among other bare parts) in breeding condition, and/or certain breeding plumage details, as well as geographic range. Image Subspecies Distribution P. o. californicus (Ridgway, 1884) This subspecies breeds on the Pacific coast of California and Baja California, and south to Jalisco. Its non breeding range extends north along the Pacific coast to British Columbia, and south to Guatemala. It is rarely found in El Salvador. P. o. carolinensis (Gmelin, 1789) This subspecies breeds in the eastern United States from Maryland south along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Caribbean coasts and south to Honduras and its Pacific coasts, Costa Rica, and Panama. Its non breeding range is from southern New York to Venezuela. P. o. occidentalis (Linnaeus, 1766) This subspecies breeds in the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Bahamas, and along the Caribbean coast of the West Indies, Colombia, and Venezuela, up to Trinidad and Tobago. P. o. murphyi (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found from western Colombia to Ecuador, and is a non breeding visitor to northern Peru. P. o. urinator (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found on the Galapagos Islands. The brown pelican is part of a clade that includes the Peruvian pelican (P. thagus) and American white pelican (P. erythrorhynchos); brown and Peruvian pelicans are sister taxa, with American white pelican a more distant relative. It measures in length and has a wingspan of Like all pelicans, it has a very long bill, measuring in length. at the bottom for draining water when it scoops out prey. The breast and belly are dark, and the legs and feet black. The nonbreeding adult has a white head and neck, and the pre breeding adult has a creamy yellow head. The pink skin around the eyes becomes dull and gray in the non breeding season. It lacks any red hue, and the pouch is strongly olivaceous ochre tinged and the legs are olivaceous gray to blackish gray. It has pale blue to yellowish white irides which become brown during the breeding season. During courtship, the bill becomes pinkish red to pale orange, redder at the tip, and the pouch is blackish. Later in the breeding season the bill becomes pale ash gray over most of the upper jaw and the basal third of the mandible. It and the Peruvian pelican are the only true marine pelican species. The brown pelican produces a wide variety of harsh, grunting sounds, such as a low pitched hrrraa hrra, during displays. On the Atlantic Coast, it is found from the New Jersey coast to the mouth of the Amazon River. After nesting, North American birds move in flocks further north along the coasts, returning to warmer waters for winter. In the non breeding season, it is found as far north as Canada. Small numbers of brown pelicans have been recorded from Arica in far northern Chile. Along the Gulf Coast, it inhabits Alabama, Texas, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Mexico. It is also found in mangrove swamps, and prefers shallow waters, especially near salty bays and beaches. In level flight, brown pelicans fly in groups, with their heads held back on their shoulders and their bills resting on their folded necks. They may fly in a V formation, but usually in regular lines or single file, often low over the water's surface. To exclude water from the nasal passage, they have narrower internal regions of the nostrils.
Во время демонстраций коричневый пеликан издает разнообразные резкие, хриплые звуки, например, низкотональный «хррраа хрра». На Атлантическом побережье он встречается от побережья Нью-Джерси до устья реки Амазонки. После гнездования североамериканские птицы перемещаются стаями дальше на север вдоль побережья, возвращаясь в более теплые воды на зиму. Вне периода размножения его можно встретить на севере до Канады. Небольшое количество коричневых пеликанов было зарегистрировано в Арике, на крайнем севере Чили. Вдоль побережья Мексиканского залива он обитает в Алабаме, Техасе, Флориде, Миссисипи, Луизиане и Мексике. Он также встречается в мангровых зарослях и предпочитает мелководье, особенно вблизи соленых заливов и пляжей.
The brown pelican was described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the 1766 12th edition of his Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name of Pelecanus occidentalis. It belongs to the New World clade of the genus Pelecanus. Five subspecies of the brown pelican are recognized. At least some of these subspecies are genetically distinct despite similar phenotypes. The subspecies differ from one another in size, coloration of the throat pouch (among other bare parts) in breeding condition, and/or certain breeding plumage details, as well as geographic range. Image Subspecies Distribution P. o. californicus (Ridgway, 1884) This subspecies breeds on the Pacific coast of California and Baja California, and south to Jalisco. Its non breeding range extends north along the Pacific coast to British Columbia, and south to Guatemala. It is rarely found in El Salvador. P. o. carolinensis (Gmelin, 1789) This subspecies breeds in the eastern United States from Maryland south along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Caribbean coasts and south to Honduras and its Pacific coasts, Costa Rica, and Panama. Its non breeding range is from southern New York to Venezuela. P. o. occidentalis (Linnaeus, 1766) This subspecies breeds in the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Bahamas, and along the Caribbean coast of the West Indies, Colombia, and Venezuela, up to Trinidad and Tobago. P. o. murphyi (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found from western Colombia to Ecuador, and is a non breeding visitor to northern Peru. P. o. urinator (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found on the Galapagos Islands. The brown pelican is part of a clade that includes the Peruvian pelican (P. thagus) and American white pelican (P. erythrorhynchos); brown and Peruvian pelicans are sister taxa, with American white pelican a more distant relative. It measures in length and has a wingspan of Like all pelicans, it has a very long bill, measuring in length. at the bottom for draining water when it scoops out prey. The breast and belly are dark, and the legs and feet black. The nonbreeding adult has a white head and neck, and the pre breeding adult has a creamy yellow head. The pink skin around the eyes becomes dull and gray in the non breeding season. It lacks any red hue, and the pouch is strongly olivaceous ochre tinged and the legs are olivaceous gray to blackish gray. It has pale blue to yellowish white irides which become brown during the breeding season. During courtship, the bill becomes pinkish red to pale orange, redder at the tip, and the pouch is blackish. Later in the breeding season the bill becomes pale ash gray over most of the upper jaw and the basal third of the mandible. It and the Peruvian pelican are the only true marine pelican species. The brown pelican produces a wide variety of harsh, grunting sounds, such as a low pitched hrrraa hrra, during displays. On the Atlantic Coast, it is found from the New Jersey coast to the mouth of the Amazon River. After nesting, North American birds move in flocks further north along the coasts, returning to warmer waters for winter. In the non breeding season, it is found as far north as Canada. Small numbers of brown pelicans have been recorded from Arica in far northern Chile. Along the Gulf Coast, it inhabits Alabama, Texas, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Mexico. It is also found in mangrove swamps, and prefers shallow waters, especially near salty bays and beaches. In level flight, brown pelicans fly in groups, with their heads held back on their shoulders and their bills resting on their folded necks. They may fly in a V formation, but usually in regular lines or single file, often low over the water's surface. To exclude water from the nasal passage, they have narrower internal regions of the nostrils.
В полете коричневые пеликаны летают группами, держа головы отведенными назад на плечах, а клювы – на свернутых шеях. Они могут летать клином, но чаще – правильными линиями или в один ряд, часто низко над поверхностью воды. Для предотвращения попадания воды в носовые проходы у них сужены внутренние части ноздрей.
The brown pelican was described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in the 1766 12th edition of his Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name of Pelecanus occidentalis. It belongs to the New World clade of the genus Pelecanus. Five subspecies of the brown pelican are recognized. At least some of these subspecies are genetically distinct despite similar phenotypes. The subspecies differ from one another in size, coloration of the throat pouch (among other bare parts) in breeding condition, and/or certain breeding plumage details, as well as geographic range. Image Subspecies Distribution P. o. californicus (Ridgway, 1884) This subspecies breeds on the Pacific coast of California and Baja California, and south to Jalisco. Its non breeding range extends north along the Pacific coast to British Columbia, and south to Guatemala. It is rarely found in El Salvador. P. o. carolinensis (Gmelin, 1789) This subspecies breeds in the eastern United States from Maryland south along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Caribbean coasts and south to Honduras and its Pacific coasts, Costa Rica, and Panama. Its non breeding range is from southern New York to Venezuela. P. o. occidentalis (Linnaeus, 1766) This subspecies breeds in the Greater and Lesser Antilles, the Bahamas, and along the Caribbean coast of the West Indies, Colombia, and Venezuela, up to Trinidad and Tobago. P. o. murphyi (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found from western Colombia to Ecuador, and is a non breeding visitor to northern Peru. P. o. urinator (Wetmore, 1945) This subspecies is found on the Galapagos Islands. The brown pelican is part of a clade that includes the Peruvian pelican (P. thagus) and American white pelican (P. erythrorhynchos); brown and Peruvian pelicans are sister taxa, with American white pelican a more distant relative. It measures in length and has a wingspan of Like all pelicans, it has a very long bill, measuring in length. at the bottom for draining water when it scoops out prey. The breast and belly are dark, and the legs and feet black. The nonbreeding adult has a white head and neck, and the pre breeding adult has a creamy yellow head. The pink skin around the eyes becomes dull and gray in the non breeding season. It lacks any red hue, and the pouch is strongly olivaceous ochre tinged and the legs are olivaceous gray to blackish gray. It has pale blue to yellowish white irides which become brown during the breeding season. During courtship, the bill becomes pinkish red to pale orange, redder at the tip, and the pouch is blackish. Later in the breeding season the bill becomes pale ash gray over most of the upper jaw and the basal third of the mandible. It and the Peruvian pelican are the only true marine pelican species. The brown pelican produces a wide variety of harsh, grunting sounds, such as a low pitched hrrraa hrra, during displays. On the Atlantic Coast, it is found from the New Jersey coast to the mouth of the Amazon River. After nesting, North American birds move in flocks further north along the coasts, returning to warmer waters for winter. In the non breeding season, it is found as far north as Canada. Small numbers of brown pelicans have been recorded from Arica in far northern Chile. Along the Gulf Coast, it inhabits Alabama, Texas, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Mexico. It is also found in mangrove swamps, and prefers shallow waters, especially near salty bays and beaches. In level flight, brown pelicans fly in groups, with their heads held back on their shoulders and their bills resting on their folded necks. They may fly in a V formation, but usually in regular lines or single file, often low over the water's surface. To exclude water from the nasal passage, they have narrower internal regions of the nostrils.
Кормление
Коричневый пеликан – рыбоядное животное, питающееся преимущественно рыбой. Менхаден может составлять до 90% его рациона, а наличие анчоусов особенно важно для успешного гнездования коричневого пеликана. Среди других рыб, на которых он регулярно охотится, можно выделить кефаль-свинью, рыбу-пино, сельдь, морского окуня, сильверсайдов, кефаль, сардину, пескарей и верховок. Коричневые пеликаны, обитающие в Южной Калифорнии, особенно сильно зависят от тихоокеанской сардины как основного источника пищи, которая может составлять до 26% их рациона, что делает их одним из трех главных хищников сардины в этом регионе. В рацион также входят беспозвоночные, особенно креветки, а иногда – земноводные, яйца и птенцы птиц (цапли, гагарки и особи своего вида). Летая на максимальной высоте над океаном, коричневый пеликан способен замечать косяки рыб во время полёта, часто полностью погружаясь под поверхность воды на мгновение, чтобы схватить добычу. Наряду с перуанским пеликаном, это единственный вид пеликанов, который в основном добывает пищу, ныряя; все остальные существующие виды пеликанов просто плавают на поверхности воды во время кормления. Выныривая, он выталкивает воду из горлового мешка перед тем, как проглотить добычу. Они способны пить соленую воду благодаря высокой способности их солевых желез выделять соль.
The brown pelican is a piscivore, primarily feeding on fish. Menhaden may account for 90% of its diet, and the anchovy supply is particularly important to the brown pelican's nesting success. Other fish preyed on with some regularity includes pigfish, pinfish, herring, sheepshead, silversides, mullets, sardines, minnows, and topminnows. Brown pelicans residing in Southern California rely especially heavily on pacific sardine as a major food source which can compose up to 26% of their diet, making them one of the top three predators of sardines in the area. Non fish prey includes crustaceans, especially prawns, and it occasionally feeds on amphibians and the eggs and nestlings of birds (egrets, common murres and its own species). As the brown pelican flies at a maximum height of above the ocean, it can spot schools of fish while flying. often submerging completely below the surface momentarily as it snaps up prey. Besides its sister species, the Peruvian pelican, this is the only pelican to primarily forage via diving, all other extant pelican merely float on the waters' surface when foraging. Upon surfacing, it spills the water from its throat pouch before swallowing its catch. They are capable of drinking saline water due to the high capacity of their salt glands to excrete salt.
Разведение
Коричневый пеликан является моногамным в течение сезона размножения, но не образует пары на всю жизнь. Пик гнездового сезона приходится на март и апрель. Самец выбирает место для гнезда и демонстрирует движения головой, чтобы привлечь самку. Гнезда располагаются обычно на скалах, реже – в кустарниках или небольших деревьях, и представляют собой неглубокие углубления, выстланные перьями и окруженные валиком из почвы и мусора. Яйцо имеет мелово-белый цвет. Молодые особи достигают половой зрелости (и полного взрослого оперения) в возрасте от трех до пяти лет. В неволе один коричневый пеликан прожил более 31 года. На коричневых пеликанов охотятся аллигаторы, стервятники, одичавшие кошки, одичавшие собаки, еноты. Вероятность хищничества снижается, если колония располагается на острове. Хотя это редкость, зафиксированы случаи, когда рыси поедали как птенцов, так и раненых взрослых особей. Инвазивный красный огненный муравей охотится на вылупившихся птенцов. Как и все пеликаны, коричневые пеликаны очень чувствительны к беспокойству со стороны людей (включая туристов и рыбаков) вблизи их гнезд и могут даже покидать гнезда. Взрослые особи, не занятые гнездованием, из-за своих размеров редко становятся жертвами хищников. В 1902 году пеликан был включен в официальную печать штата Луизиана, а в 1912 году изображение пеликана с птенцом появилось на флаге Луизианы. Одно из неофициальных названий штата Луизиана – «Пеликановый штат», а коричневый пеликан является официальной государственной птицей Луизианы. Он является одним из талисманов Университета Тулейн, изображен на его печати, а также присутствует на гербе Университета Вест-Индии. Команда Национальной баскетбольной ассоциации (НБА) «Нью-Орлеан Пеликанс» названа в честь коричневого пеликана. В фильме 1993 года «Свидетельство пеликана», снятом по одноименному роману Джона Гришема, юридический документ предполагает, что убийцы двух судей Верховного суда были мотивированы желанием бурить нефть на болотистой местности Луизианы, являющейся средой обитания находящегося под угрозой исчезновения коричневого пеликана. В том же году в фильме «Парк Юрского периода» в конце показана стая коричневых пеликанов. В 1998 году американский дирижер Дэвид Вудард исполнил реквием по калифорнийскому коричневому пеликану на кромке пляжа, где животное погибло. В мультфильме Disney/Pixar «В поисках Немо» (2003) коричневый пеликан (озвученный Джеффри Рашем с австралийским акцентом) представлен как дружелюбный, добродетельный говорящий персонаж по имени Найджел.
The brown pelican is a monogamous breeder within a breeding season, but does not pair for life. Nesting season peaks during March and April. The male chooses a nesting site and performs a display of head movements to attract a female. although sometimes on cliffs, and less often in bushes or small trees. and consist of feather lined impressions protected with a rim of soil and debris. The egg is chalky white, The young reach sexual maturity (and full adult plumage) at anywhere from three to five years of age. A brown pelican has been recorded to have lived for over 31 years in captivity. alligators, vultures, feral cats, feral dogs, raccoons, Predation is likely reduced if the colony is on an island. Although it is rare, bobcats have been documented eating both the offspring and injured adults. The invasive red imported fire ant is known to prey on hatchlings. Like all pelicans, brown pelicans are highly sensitive to disturbances by humans (including tourists or fishermen) at their nests, and may even abandon their nests. Due to their size, non nesting adults are rarely predated. In 1902, it was made a part of the official Louisiana seal and, in 1912, a pelican and her young became part of the Flag of Louisiana as well. One of Louisiana's state nicknames is "The Pelican State", and the brown pelican is the official state bird of Louisiana. It is one of the mascots of Tulane University, present on its seal, and is also present on the crest of the University of the West Indies. The National Basketball Association (NBA)'s New Orleans Pelicans are named in the honor of the brown pelican. In the 1993 film The Pelican Brief, based on the novel of the same name by John Grisham, a legal brief speculates that the assassins of two supreme court justices were motivated by a desire to drill for oil on a Louisiana marshland that was a habitat of the endangered brown pelican. In the same year, Jurassic Park showed a pod of brown pelicans at the end of the film. In 1998, American conductor David Woodard performed a requiem for a California brown pelican on the seaward limit of the berm of a beach where the animal had fallen. In the 2003 Disney/Pixar film Finding Nemo, a brown pelican (voiced by Geoffrey Rush in an Australian accent) was illustrated as a friendly, virtuous talking character named Nigel.
Статус и сохранение
С 1988 года бурый пеликан классифицируется как вид, вызывающий наименьшие опасения, в Красном списке МСОП, благодаря широкому ареалу – более 20 000 км2 (7700 миль2) – и растущей популяции. В 1903 году Теодор Рузвельт выделил остров Пеликанов, ныне известный как Национальный заповедник дикой природы острова Пеликанов, исключительно для защиты бурого пеликана от охотников. Начиная с 1940-х годов, с изобретением и широким применением пестицидов, таких как ДДТ, популяция бурого пеликана резко сократилась из-за снижения успешности размножения. К 1960-м годам он почти исчез вдоль побережья Мексиканского залива, а в южной Калифорнии наблюдался почти полный провал размножения из-за использования ДДТ в Соединенных Штатах. Исследовательская группа из Университета Тампы под руководством Ральфа Шрайбера провела исследование в заливе Тампа и обнаружила, что ДДТ приводит к тому, что скорлупа яиц пеликана становится слишком тонкой, чтобы обеспечить развитие эмбриона до зрелости. В 1972 году Агентство по охране окружающей среды США (USEPA) запретило использование ДДТ в Соединенных Штатах и ограничило применение других пестицидов. С тех пор наблюдается снижение уровня химических загрязнителей в яйцах бурого пеликана и соответствующее увеличение успешности гнездования. В 2019 году было установлено, что эти сокращения достигли уровня, составляющего всего 10% от зарегистрированных максимальных показателей численности. Значительное сокращение популяции тихоокеанской сардины может быть связано с уровнем азота в их среде обитания, который является ограничивающим фактором для производства планктона. Эти неудачи в размножении характеризуются уменьшением количества пеликанов, прибывающих в гнездовые колонии, массовым оставлением гнезд и ранней миграцией из-за невозможности накормить птенцов, а также неоптимальным размножением у тех, кто пытается размножаться. Изменения в окружающей среде, как правило, оказывают быстрое воздействие на популяции морских птиц из-за простоты их трофической цепи, что позволяет легко выявлять и отслеживать сложные долгосрочные тенденции в состоянии экосистем и ресурсов. Бурые пеликаны оказались полезным индикатором для оценки влияния развитой рыболовной отрасли в Южной Калифорнии. В Калифорнийском заливе с начала 1990-х годов наблюдаются признаки перелова сардины. Однако мониторинг популяции и численности сардины и получение соответствующих показателей затруднительны. Поскольку недостаток пищи негативно влияет на успешность размножения морских птиц, диета морских птиц и успешность размножения используются для косвенной оценки состояния популяции рыб, которыми они питаются. Эта модель успешно применяется с использованием бурого пеликана в качестве индикаторного вида. По мере уменьшения доли сардины в рационе бурого пеликана, успешность рыболовства снижается в меньшей степени. Когда численность сардины в конечном итоге снизится настолько, что бурые пеликаны переместятся и начнут питаться другой кормовой рыбой, коммерческий вылов все равно будет оставаться значительным. Это указывает на то, что даже при отсутствии признаков сокращения численности сардины у рыболовов, бурые пеликаны могли уже пострадать и начать поиск других источников пищи. Доступность сардины может еще больше снизиться во время аномалий Эль-Ниньо, когда термоклины препятствуют доступу бурых пеликанов к добыче. Рацион бурого пеликана в основном отражает снижение численности сардины для рыболовства в тот же сезон, поскольку бурые пеликаны питаются в основном теми же взрослыми особями, которые вылавливаются в коммерческих целях. Хотя бурые пеликаны служат важным индикатором для рыболовства, сокращение численности сардины из-за изменения климата и перелова имеет серьезные последствия для общего состояния экосистемы, как внутри, так и за пределами отдельных трофических цепей.
Since 1988, the brown pelican has been rated as least concern on the IUCN Red List of Endangered species based on its large range—greater than 20,000 km2 (7700 mi2)—and an increasing population trend. In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt set aside Pelican Island, now known as Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge, to solely protect the brown pelican from hunters. Starting in the 1940s with the invention and extensive use of pesticides such as DDT, the brown pelican population had drastically declined due to a lack of breeding success. By the 1960s, it had almost disappeared along the Gulf Coast and, in southern California, it had suffered almost total reproductive failure, due to DDT usage in the United States. A research group from the University of Tampa, headed by Ralph Schreiber, conducted research in Tampa Bay, and found that DDT caused the pelican eggshells to be too thin to support the embryo to maturity. In 1972, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) banned DDT usage in the United States and limited the use of other pesticides. There has been a decline in chemical contaminant levels in brown pelican eggs since then, and a corresponding increase in its nesting success. In 2019 these declines were found to have reached levels which were a mere 10% of the highest reported abundances. The significant decrease in pacific sardine population can be linked to the levels of nitrogen within their habitat, a limiting factor in plankton production. These breeding failures have been characterized by decreased numbers of pelicans arriving at nesting colonies, large scale abandonment and early migration due to an inability to feed hatchlings, and sub optimal breeding by those who do attempt to breed. Environmental changes tend to have fast acting impacts on marine bird populations due to the simplicity of their trophic cascade, allowing for complex, long term trends in ecosystem health and resources to be easily realized and tracked. Brown pelicans have proven to be a useful indicator in determining the effects of the well established fishing industry in Southern California. Sardine fishery in the Gulf of California has been showing signs of overfishing since the early 1990s. Sardine population and abundance, however, is difficult to monitor and obtain indicators for. Since lacking food availability has negative implications for breeding success in seabirds, seabird diet, and breeding success have been used to indirectly measure the population status of the fish they feed on. This model has been shown to work using brown pelicans as an indicator species. As the proportion of sardines in the brown pelican's diet decreases, the success of fisheries declines to a lesser extent. When eventually the sardine abundance has declined enough for brown pelicans to move away and begin feeding on other forage fish, commercial fishing still would be fishing in significant numbers. This indicates that even when fisheries are not seeing signs of declining sardine abundance, brown pelicans may have already been affected to the point of locating other food sources. This availability of sardines may decline even further during El Niño anomalies, when thermoclines prevent brown pelicans from reaching their prey. Brown pelican diet will mostly indicate declines in sardine abundance for fisheries during the same season, as brown pelicans feed mostly on the same adult fish that are commercially fished. Although brown pelicans serve as an important indicator species for fisheries, declining sardine abundance due to both climate changes and overfishing have huge implications on overall ecosystem health, within or outside the individual trophic cascade.