Введение
Древний сирийский город
Дура-Европос был греческим, парфянским и римским пограничным городом, построенным на обрыве над юго-западным берегом реки Евфрат. Он расположен недалеко от деревни Сальхие, в современной Сирии. Дура-Европос был основан около 300 года до н.э. Селевком I Никатором, основавшим империю Селевкидов как один из диадохов Александра Македонского. В 113 году до н.э. парфяне завоевали город и удерживали его, с одним кратким римским перерывом (114 год н.э.), до 165 года н.э. Под властью парфян он стал важным провинциальным административным центром. Римляне окончательно захватили Дура-Европос в 165 году н.э. и значительно расширили его, превратив в свой самый восточный опорный пункт в Месопотамии, пока он не был захвачен Сасанидской империей после осады в 256–257 годах н.э. Население было депортировано, и заброшенный город со временем был погребен под песком и грязью и исчез из виду. Дура-Европос имеет исключительное археологическое значение и был назван «Помпеями пустыни». Поскольку город был заброшен после завоевания в 256–257 годах н.э., на его месте ничего не было построено, и последующие строительные работы не скрыли архитектурные особенности древнего города. Его расположение на границе империй способствовало смешению культурных традиций, большая часть которых сохранилась под руинами города. Были обнаружены замечательные находки, включая многочисленные храмы, настенные росписи, надписи, военное снаряжение, гробницы и даже впечатляющие свидетельства сасанидской осады. Город был разграблен и в значительной степени разрушен между 2011 и 2014 годами террористической организацией «Исламское государство» во время сирийской гражданской войны.
Основание и ранняя история
Первоначально город был крепостью, но греки назвали его Европос в честь македонского происхождения Селевка Никатора, основателя города. В древности каждое из этих названий использовалось отдельно; сочетание "Dura Europos" является современным и было предложено Францем Кумонтом в 1922 году. Дура контролировала речной переход на пути между недавно основанными Селевком Антиохией и Селевкией на Тигре. Перестройка города в крупный центр по гипподамовой системе, с прямоугольными кварталами, ограниченными пересекающимися улицами, вокруг большой центральной агоры, произошла во II веке до нашей эры. Традиционное представление о Дура-Европосе как о важном пункте на караванных путях было пересмотрено благодаря обнаружению местных производств и следов тесных связей с Пальмирой. В настоящее время считается, что развитие Дура-Европоса было обусловлено его ролью региональной столицы, которая отличалась многокультурностью, о чем свидетельствуют надписи на греческом, латинском, иврите, различных арамейских диалектах (хатранском, пальмирском, сирийском), среднеперсидском, парфянском и сафаитском языках. В I веке до нашей эры Дура служила пограничной крепостью Парфянской империи.
Восстановление города
Совершенно оригинальная архитектура Дура-Европоса достигла расцвета в парфянский период. Этот период характеризовался прогрессивной эволюцией греческих представлений в сторону новых формул, в которых региональные традиции, особенно вавилонские, играли всё возрастающую роль. Эти новшества коснулись как религиозных, так и жилых построек. Хотя иранское влияние трудно проследить в архитектуре Дура-Европоса, в изобразительном искусстве ощущается влияние парфянского искусства. Военное значение поселения подтвердилось после 209 года н.э.: северная часть была занята римским лагерем, отгороженным кирпичной стеной; солдаты размещались среди гражданского населения, в частности, в так называемом «Доме писцов». Римляне возвели на краю обрыва дворец командующего военным округом. В городе располагалось несколько святилищ, помимо храмов, посвящённых греческим богам Зевсу и Артемиде. Существовали святилища, датируемые I веком н.э., посвящённые Митре, пальмирским божествам и местным божествам. В 216 году н.э. в военной зоне был построен небольшой амфитеатр для солдат, а новая синагога, завершённая в 244 году н.э., и дом для христианских богослужений были украшены фресками с изображением важных персонажей в римских туниках, кафтанах и парфянских штанах. Эти великолепные росписи, покрывающие стены, свидетельствуют о богатстве еврейской и христианской общин. Численность населения Дура-Европоса оценивается в 10 000 – 15 000 человек, максимум; более осторожные оценки указывают на то, что сельское хозяйство региона могло прокормить лишь около 5 000 – 6 000 человек. Город получил статус «колонии» после 254 года н.э.; в официальных документах он именовался «колонией европейцев Селевка Никатора» (κωλονεία Εὐροπαίων Σελεύκου Νεικάτορος). Хорошая сохранность зданий и их фресок объясняется их расположением вблизи главной городской стены, обращённой на запад, и военной необходимостью укрепления этой стены. Персы-сасаниды научились рыть туннели под стенами, чтобы подрывать их и создавать проломы. В качестве контрмеры римский гарнизон решил пожертвовать улицей и зданиями вдоль стены, засыпав их обломками для усиления стены в случае персидского подкопа. Таким образом, христианская часовня, синагога, митрей и многие другие сооружения оказались погребёнными. Римляне также укрепили стены снаружи земляным валом, образующим гляцис, который был обмазан глиняным кирпичом для предотвращения эрозии. Как пишет Дж. А. Бэрд: «Угроза со стороны сасанидов остро ощущалась римскими военными, и то, что было обнесённым стеной городом, превратилось в крепость — в буквальном смысле, став оборонительным пунктом. Чтобы сдержать вторжение сасанидов, во внутренней части городских стен был возведён огромный земляной вал, преднамеренно и с большими усилиями, включая методическое разрушение зданий и перемещение множества тонн земли, что привело к разрушению значительной части территории».
Осада и разрушение
Нет письменных свидетельств об осаде Дуры сасанидами. Однако археологи обнаружили убедительные доказательства осады и ее хода. Прочность укреплений стен была испытана в 256 году нашей эры, когда Шапур I осадил город. Опасения защитников оправдались: Шапур приказал своим инженерам подрывать то, что археологи называют Башней 19 – две башни к северу от Пальмиренских ворот. Когда римляне осознали угрозу, они вырыли контрмин, чтобы встретить персидские усилия и атаковать их до завершения работы. Персы уже проложили сложные галереи вдоль стены, когда римский контрмин достиг их. Им удалось отразить римскую атаку, и когда защитники города заметили бегство солдат из контрмина, вход был быстро запечатан. Оставшиеся раненые и отставшие оказались замурованы внутри, где и погибли. (Именно монеты, найденные при этих римских солдатах, позволили датировать осаду 256 годом нашей эры.) Контрмин оказался успешным, и персы прекратили работы у Башни 19. Затем сасаниды атаковали Башню 14, самую южную вдоль западной стены. Она возвышалась над глубоким оврагом к югу, и именно с этого направления на нее и напали. На этот раз подкоп был частично успешен, вызвав оседание башни и прилегающих стен. Однако римские контрмеры укрепили стену и предотвратили ее обрушение. Это привело к третьей попытке прорыва городской стены. Был сооружен пандус для атаки Башни 14, но пока он строился, а гарнизон пытался остановить его продвижение, рядом с пандусом был начат еще один подкоп. Его целью было не обрушение стены – укрепления оказались эффективными – а проход под ней и проникновение в город. Этот туннель был рассчитан на прохождение персов четверыми в ряд. В конечном итоге он пробил внутренний вал, и когда пандус был завершен, Дура пала. Пока персидские войска поднимались по пандусу, их товарищи из туннеля должны были ворваться в город, встретив незначительное сопротивление, поскольку почти все защитники находились на стене, пытаясь отразить атаку с пандуса. Город был заброшен, а его население депортировано. Осада примечательна ранним применением химического оружия атакующей персидской армией. Во время осады нападавшие вырыли несколько подземных шахт под городскими стенами. Римляне прорывали туннели, чтобы добраться до шахт и сражаться с подкопчиками под землей. В одном из таких туннелей, когда римляне прорвались в сасанидский туннель, шахтеры воспламенили смесь серы и смолы, создав облако ядовитого газа – диоксида серы, – которое убило 19 римлян и 1 перса, один из которых имел при себе монету с датировкой 256 годом, что позволило установить дату осады. Археологи раскопали место происшествия в 1930-х годах. В 2009 году анализы показали наличие диоксида серы внутри туннеля. Римские солдаты строили контрмин, и считается, что сасанидские войска выпустили газ, когда их шахта была прорвана римским контрмином. Единственный персидский солдат, обнаруженный среди тел, предположительно, ответственен за выброс газа, прежде чем сам пал от его воздействия. Шапур I уничтожил не только Дуру-Европос, но и другие пальмирские торговые колонии вдоль Евфрата, включая колонию в Ане, в 253 году. Историк VI века Петр Патрикий писал, что Одаэнат обратился к Шапуру I с просьбой о переговорах по пальмирским интересам, но был отвергнут, а дары, отправленные персам, были брошены в реку. Дата попытки переговоров является предметом споров: некоторые ученые, в том числе Джон Ф. Дринкуотер, относят событие к 253 году, в то время как другие, такие как Аларик Уотсон, – к 256 году, после разрушения Дуры-Европоса.
Население, языки и тексты
[[Файл:Площадка с Гелиодором, актуарием.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Плитка с потолка Дома писцов, на которой изображен грек по имени Гелиодорос, занимавший должность актуария. Стиль и техника изображения – фронтальная поза, большие глаза, тонкая светотень и земляные пигменты – напоминают другие росписи в зданиях города. Вероятно, это фрагмент «Диатессарона» Татиана. Также была обнаружена молитва на иврите. Эти тексты проливают свет на повседневную жизнь города. В парфянский период документы датировались по эпохе Аршакидов и Селевкидов. Интересно отметить, что в юридических документах парфянского и римского периодов упоминаются женщины, что свидетельствует об их независимости и отсутствии необходимости в мужском попечителе, как это было принято в Средиземноморье. Многие греческие документы написаны на аттическом диалекте и содержат немного грамматических ошибок. Тот факт, что большинство текстов – юридические документы, указывает на высокий уровень образования писателей в области греческого языка. С другой стороны, письмо, датированное III веком и отправленное жителем деревни Осса, демонстрирует больше отклонений от классического аттического диалекта. Тем не менее, нет свидетельств о развитии в городе какого-либо специфического греческого диалекта, так называемого «дурского» диалекта. Алтарь Ярхибола с греческой надписью, выполненной Скрибонием Муцианом, хилиархом. Используемые разными людьми языки демонстрируют многокультурность города. Например, на потолочной плитке с изображением Гелиодора, актуария (должностного лица, ответственного за выплату жалованья в римской армии), есть греческая надпись, идентифицирующая человека по имени и должности. Использование греческого языка для обозначения римского чиновника типично для мультикультурной среды Дура-Европоса. Другой пример – надпись: «храбрый в битвах, могущественный в войнах, павший». Эти слова являются частью эпитафии Юлия Теренция, трибуна двадцатого пальмирского когорты. Как пишет историк Дженнифер Бэрд, Юлий известен лучше, чем большинство римских солдат, находившихся в Дуре, поскольку он упоминается как в папирусах из военных архивов, так и на картине, изображающей его со своими людьми. Его греческая погребальная надпись была найдена в доме недалеко от центра города, по-видимому, неполной – последняя часть не вырезана, но сохранились окрашенные направляющие линии. Неизвестно, пережила ли его жена, Аурелия Аррия, или человек, которому она поручила создание этого памятника, чтобы завершить его. Несмотря на свою неполноту, она свидетельствует о том, что римский трибун был увековечен греческой надписью по заказу его жены. Кроме того, это практически уникальный случай для Дуры, где не обнаружено традиции погребального поминовения: нет погребальных надписей и, в отличие от более известной сирийской соседки Пальмиры, нет погребальных портретов. Еще один интересный пример – алтарь местного бога Ярхибола. На нем есть надпись на греческом языке: «Богу Ярхиболу, Скрибоний Муциан, хилиарх, сделал это по повелению». Это примечательно тем, что показывает, что человек с латинским именем Скрибоний Муциан, занимающий греческую должность в римской армии, поклонялся местному божеству и принес ему посвящение на греческом языке. Некоторые найденные документы свидетельствуют о местной традиции использования двойных имен: например, греческого и семитского. Одним из примеров является Дура-папирус 19 (P. Dura 19) (датируется I веком н.э.), в котором зафиксировано разделение дома, унаследованного четырьмя братьями от отца. Как пишет Бэрд: Отец был записан под греческим именем Полемократ (его отец и дед также носили имена Димитрий и Полемократ соответственно), а среди сыновей младшего Полемократа все имели как греческие, так и арамейские имена, например, Димитрий, также известный как Набусам. В документе подчеркивается важность указания отцовской линии происхождения и наблюдается тенденция, когда сыновья берут греческое имя своих дедов. Они описываются как Europaioi, «из Европоса», обозначение места, которое обычно считается указанием на гражданский статус. Также были обнаружены фрагменты пергаментных свитков с еврейскими текстами; их осмысленный перевод был невозможен до тех пор, пока Дж. Л. Тейхер не указал, что это христианские евхаристические молитвы, настолько тесно связанные с молитвами в «Дидахе», что он смог восполнить пробелы, опираясь на текст «Дидахе». В 1933 году среди фрагментов текста, найденных на городской свалке за Пальмирскими воротами, был обнаружен фрагментарный текст из неизвестной греческой гармонии евангельских повествований – сопоставимый с «Диатессароном» Татиана, но независимый от него.
The father is recorded as having the Greek name Polemocrates (his own father and grandfather also bearing the names Demetrius and Polemocrates, respectively), and amongst the younger Polemocrates' sons, all had both Greek and Aramaic names, for instance Demetrius, also known as Nabusamus. The document records the concern with noting patrilineal descent – descent along the male line – and a pattern of sons taking the Greek name of their grandfathers. They are described as Europaioi, 'of Europos', a designation of place which [ ] is generally assumed to indicate citizen status. Fragments of parchment scrolls with Hebrew texts have also been unearthed; they resisted meaningful translation until J. L. Teicher pointed out that they were Christian Eucharistic prayers, so closely connected with the prayers in Didache that he was able to fill lacunae in the light of the Didache text. In 1933, among fragments of text recovered from the town dump outside the Palmyrene Gate, a fragmentary text was unearthed from an unknown Greek harmony of the gospel account—comparable to Tatian's Diatessaron, but independent of it.
Греко-римские, палмиренские и местные культы
Бюст женщины, вероятно Артемиды, из храма Артемиды. Храм Артемиды Нанайи был, возможно, самым старым храмом в городе. В период Селевкидов существовал теменос (огражденная священная территория) с дорической колоннадой и алтарем в центре. В конце II века до н.э. он сгорел. Вместо него был возведен наиск (небольшой храм), но он так и не был завершен. В середине I века до н.э. храм был перестроен: был создан дворцовый комплекс, в центре которого стоял новый храм с анте (передней комнатой) и тремя нефами. Храм неоднократно перестраивался до падения города. В его руинах найдена статуя, изображающая женскую фигуру, предположительно Артемиду, облаченную в охотничий наряд. Сохранилась только верхняя часть, обе руки были сломаны. Историк Сьюзан Дауни пишет, что статуя обладает "амазонским обликом, поскольку одна грудь обнажена". На статуе имеется ожерелье в форме полумесяца и покрывало необычной формы. Жертвоприношение Конона, настенная живопись в храме Бела.
There were at least three Palmyric temples in the city. The Temple of Bel (also known as the Temple of the Palmyric Gods) was built in one corner of the city wall, in the third century BC. Several construction phases can be distinguished in the building. The plan consisted of various rooms ranged around a courtyard; the actual temple stood to the north and was later marked by four columns. This temple was once richly decorated with wall paintings. There was also a shrine here, which probably contained the cult image. A small sanctuary of Bel, consisted of a single hall, was also found. The Necropolis Temple was built in 33 BC and, according to the inscriptions, was dedicated to Baal and Yarhibol. The temple was just outside the city and probably was maintained until the city's abandonment. Although the temple was located in the city's necropolis, it was built prior; and the cult there had no connection to the cemetery. The temple could have been a first port of call for caravans coming from Palmyra. A cistern next to the temple may have served to water pack animals. Remains of wall paintings were found in the temple. Three inscriptions are particularly important. The oldest of them, written in Palmyric, dates from 33 BC (year 279 of the Seleucid era) It is the oldest known inscription at Dura Europos; and when it was found and published in 1935, it was the oldest known Palmyric inscription anywhere. The names of the founders of the temple are known: Zabdibol, son of Ba'yashu, and Maliku, son of Ramu. Zabdibol came from the Bene Gaddibol clan, Maliku from that of the Bene Komare. The donors were obviously Palmyrians who lived in Dura Europos. It is noteworthy that the donors come from two different clans. In inscriptions at Palmyra, when different donors are named together, they come from the same clan. The Bene Gaddibol clan is well documented in Palmyra, where belonging to a clan was an important part of one's identity. In Dura Europos clan membership obviously lost its meaning, and two people from different clans could appear together in inscriptions. In Dura Europos, their identity was their common Palmyrene origin. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief from the Temple of Atargatis
thumb|upright=0.7|Thymiaterion (incense altar) from the Cistern at the Temple of Atargatis. It depicts a group of deer, Atargatis sacred animals. The Temple of Atargatis, which is south of the centre of the city (referred to by the excavators as the agora) and which occupies the northern part of H2 Block, was built on roughly the same principle. The temple complex had a large courtyard in the middle, a monumental entrance, and a sanctuary with a pronaos (portico) in front and three naoi (chambers) at the back. There were numerous small rooms around the courtyard, some of which were probably shrines that were consecrated to various deities. A relief on the sanctuary of the temple shows the goddess Atargatis, with a lion on either side of her, and her husband Hadad nearby. A cult standard is depicted between the two deities. Atargatis was the mother of Adonis; Hadad and Adonis could also be worshipped here. Various inscriptions by ancient visitors tell of the people who visited the sanctuary. That the temple was frequented by people from Hatra is shown by a visitor's inscription, in Hatran (an Aramaic language), that is addressed to the god of the city of Hatra named Šamaš. Otherwise, a striking number of inscriptions in the temple, some of which were scratched into the walls, were made by women. There is an inscription from the first half of the first century AD that mentions the consecration of a chapel. A number of other inscriptions date from 69 AD. Some of the women named in the inscriptions appear to have come from the family of the governors of Dura Europos. One woman was the granddaughter of the governor Lysias, another woman the wife of the governor Seleucus. In a wall of the temple there was a cuneiform tablet with old Babylonian script, which names the place as Da wa ra, which may be an old name for Dura. In the southeast part of the site, which was separated from the rest of the city by a wadi, apparently stood an acropolis typical of a Greek city. However, hardly anything has survived from the temples of that time. The Temple of Zeus Theos was built in the second century AD and was among the most important sanctuaries of the city. The building was in the centre of the city. It had an area of around and occupied half an insula. The building had a monumental courtyard and in it a large naos. The cult figure of the god was depicted on the back wall. He stood next to a chariot and was crowned by two Nikes. On the side walls of the hall are the pictures of the donors, and their family members, who financed this temple. thumb|upright=0.7|left|The female protective deity of Palmyra from the Temple of the Gadde
The Temple of the Gadde was a double temple dedicated to the patron deities (gaddē) of the city and of Palmyra. The building is located near the agora. The temple was built in the last years of Parthian rule. A propylaeon (monumental gateway) led into a courtyard; opposite the gateway was the cella with other rooms. On the right side, a hall with benches on the walls led to another courtyard, with another cella there. The exact age of the temple complex is unknown. It was expanded several times over time. Two consecration reliefs were found in the temple. One of them shows the female protective deity of Palmyra in a guise modelled on the Tyche of Antioch. She sits between two figures, wearing a mural crown and Greek clothing. On her left is the dedicator of the relief, depicted as a priest, and on her right a Nike. The other depicts the male patron deity of Dura Europos, bearded and wearing a tunic. It is very likely a depiction of Zeus Megistos. To his right is Seleukos Nikator, on the left is the one consecrating the relief. The city was founded by Seleukos Nikator, so the ruler enjoyed a special veneration here. According to an inscription, the reliefs were dedicated to "The god, Gad of Dura; made by Hairan bar Maliku Nasor, in the month of Nisan, year 470 [159 AD]." The cella also contained a relief that depicted the Semitic god Yarhibol. An inscription records "Bani Mitha, the archers" as the donors. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief with the god Arsu, from the Temple of Adonis
The Temple of Adonis was also built in Parthian times. It is also a temple complex that is grouped around a courtyard. The actual temple was located to the south and consisted of a pronaos and the naos. Wall paintings, which were discovered in a fragmentary state, depicted a statue and a family making an offering to the god on a fire altar at left. The scene has been reconstructed. In the temple complex there was also another relief, which shows the god Arsu on a camel. The inscription under the figure reads: "Oga the sculptor has made (this to) 'Arsu the camel rider', for the life of his son". The Temple of Artemis Azzanathkona was on the north side of the city and had two naoi. The temple has stood here since at least 13 AD. In Roman times, the complex was partly integrated into the military camp, although the cult worship was continued. The archive of the Cohors XX Palmyrenorum was found in one room of the temple. An inscription from 161 AD said that the temple was dedicated to Artemis Azzanathkona. Her followers believed in a "syncretized combination" of a Greek goddess Artemis and local Syrian deity Azzanathkona (Atargatis). thumb|upright=0.7|left|Relief with figure of Iarhibol from Dolicheneum
The Dolicheneum was a temple where Jupiter Dolichenus and the god called Zeus Helios Mithras Turmasgade may have been worshiped. The temple entrance was in the south part. The building had a columned courtyard with two altars; behind it were two cellae. The temple was therefore dedicated to two deities. Various rooms were arranged around the courtyard, some of them had benches along the walls. Remnants of wall paintings were also found in one room. Various inscriptions were discovered in and around the temple. One cella was dedicated to the little known god Turmasgade. The second cella was for Jupiter Dolichenus, several dedications to whom were found in the temple. Another room was dedicated to an unnamed goddess, probably Juno Dolichena. The temple was built by units of the Roman army around 211 AD, and was in use until 256 AD, mainly by Roman soldiers stationed in the city. Soldiers left several inscriptions that mention "centurio princeps of a vexillation of IV (Scythia) and XVI Flavia Firma, a vexillation of Cohors II Paphlagonum with the titles 'Galliana Volusiana', a cohors equitata with the same titles, and Julius Julianus, of A. D. 251". thumb|upright=0.7|Head, perhaps of Zeus Megistos
The Temple of Zeus Megistos (second century AD) on the Acropolis probably replaced a Greek temple of Zeus Olympius. The assignment of the temple to Zeus Megistos is based only on a dedicatory inscription, according to which parts of the building were made by Seleucus, Strategos (strategos kai epistates) of the city, rebuilt and consecrated to the god. The inscription dates to 169/170 AD and tells of numerous construction works on the temple, perhaps after it was destroyed by an earthquake. Probably then the building received its final form. The founder, Seleukos, was practically a governor in Dura Europos and belonged to a Greek family who held this office for several generations. The governor's family's house was right next to the temple. Other members of the governor's family, such as Lysias, are also mentioned in inscriptions, but no titles are mentioned, so there is a possibility that these are other people of the same name who did not belong to the governor's family. thumb|upright=0.7|left|The stele from the Temple of Zeus Kyrios
The Temple of Zeus Kyrios was a small sanctuary built against the city wall. A stele was found in the sanctuary, with either a cult image or a dedicatory relief on it. The stele shows Zeus seated on the right and a donor who appears to be a Palmyrene man. The stele has a Palmyrene language inscription that states that it was erected by Baratheh, son of Luke and his son Abubuhi in 31 AD. The god is named as Baalshamin. A Greek inscription also gives the name of the donor as Seleukos, son of Luke, and names the god as Zeus. A further Greek inscription on the stele again names Seleukos, gives the date, and refers to the god as Zeus Kyrios. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief of Aphrodite in a niche
Multiple images of Greco Roman deities were also found. Among them are Nemesis, Nike, and Aphrodite. One of the reliefs of Aphrodite was found in a private house, and is one of three such reliefs that were made in the same mold. The composition is derived from Hellenistic art, but the goddess's attributes—her bracelets, anklets, breast ornaments, and lack of modesty—is similar to the images of nude Near Eastern fertility goddesses. Perhaps it can explain her popularity at Dura Europos. The relief is dated to 200 256 AD. The house where the relief was found is close to the military quarter and may have been a brothel. Two other nearly identical and one fragmentary versions of this relief were excavated across the site. One of the additional Aphrodite reliefs was found at what is called the House of Priests, which led to speculation about women's roles in the domestic cult. A marble statue of Aphrodite Urania was found in the Temple of Artemis; it is thought to have been imported to Dura Europos. Wall paintings of Aphrodite and Cupid were found in the House of Scribes. It was dedicated to the goddess by soldiers on behalf of their commander and his family.
В городе было по крайней мере три пальмирских храма. Храм Бела (также известный как Храм пальмирских богов) был построен в одном из углов городской стены в III веке до н.э. В здании можно выделить несколько этапов строительства. План состоял из различных комнат, расположенных вокруг двора; сам храм находился на севере и позже был обозначен четырьмя колоннами. Этот храм когда-то был богато украшен настенными росписями. Здесь также находилась святыня, в которой, вероятно, находился культовый образ. Было обнаружено также небольшое святилище Бела, состоявшее из одного зала. Храм Некрополя был построен в 33 году до н.э. и, согласно надписям, был посвящен Баалу и Ярхиболу. Храм находился за пределами города и, вероятно, поддерживался до его заброшенности. Хотя храм располагался в некрополе города, он был построен раньше, и культ там не был связан с кладбищем. Храм мог быть первым пунктом остановки для караванов, прибывавших из Пальмиры. Рядом с храмом могла находиться цистерна для поения животных. В храме были найдены остатки настенных росписей. Особенно важны три надписи. Самая старая из них, написанная на пальмирском языке, датируется 33 годом до н.э. (год 279 эры Селевкидов). Это самая старая известная надпись в Дура-Европосе; и когда она была найдена и опубликована в 1935 году, это была самая старая известная пальмирская надпись в мире. Имена основателей храма известны: Забдибол, сын Баяшу, и Малику, сын Раму. Забдибол происходил из клана Бене Гаддибол, Малику – из клана Бене Комаре. Донорами, очевидно, были пальмирцы, жившие в Дура-Европосе. Примечательно, что доноры происходили из двух разных кланов. В надписях в Пальмире, когда упоминаются разные доноры вместе, они происходят из одного клана. Клан Бене Гаддибол хорошо задокументирован в Пальмире, где принадлежность к клану была важной частью идентичности. В Дура-Европосе членство в клане, очевидно, потеряло свое значение, и два человека из разных кланов могли появляться вместе в надписях. В Дура-Европосе их идентичность определялась их общим пальмирским происхождением. Рельеф из храма Атаргатис. Тимиатерион (кадильница) из цистерны в храме Атаргатис. На нем изображена группа оленей, священных животных Атаргатис.
There were at least three Palmyric temples in the city. The Temple of Bel (also known as the Temple of the Palmyric Gods) was built in one corner of the city wall, in the third century BC. Several construction phases can be distinguished in the building. The plan consisted of various rooms ranged around a courtyard; the actual temple stood to the north and was later marked by four columns. This temple was once richly decorated with wall paintings. There was also a shrine here, which probably contained the cult image. A small sanctuary of Bel, consisted of a single hall, was also found. The Necropolis Temple was built in 33 BC and, according to the inscriptions, was dedicated to Baal and Yarhibol. The temple was just outside the city and probably was maintained until the city's abandonment. Although the temple was located in the city's necropolis, it was built prior; and the cult there had no connection to the cemetery. The temple could have been a first port of call for caravans coming from Palmyra. A cistern next to the temple may have served to water pack animals. Remains of wall paintings were found in the temple. Three inscriptions are particularly important. The oldest of them, written in Palmyric, dates from 33 BC (year 279 of the Seleucid era) It is the oldest known inscription at Dura Europos; and when it was found and published in 1935, it was the oldest known Palmyric inscription anywhere. The names of the founders of the temple are known: Zabdibol, son of Ba'yashu, and Maliku, son of Ramu. Zabdibol came from the Bene Gaddibol clan, Maliku from that of the Bene Komare. The donors were obviously Palmyrians who lived in Dura Europos. It is noteworthy that the donors come from two different clans. In inscriptions at Palmyra, when different donors are named together, they come from the same clan. The Bene Gaddibol clan is well documented in Palmyra, where belonging to a clan was an important part of one's identity. In Dura Europos clan membership obviously lost its meaning, and two people from different clans could appear together in inscriptions. In Dura Europos, their identity was their common Palmyrene origin. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief from the Temple of Atargatis
thumb|upright=0.7|Thymiaterion (incense altar) from the Cistern at the Temple of Atargatis. It depicts a group of deer, Atargatis sacred animals. The Temple of Atargatis, which is south of the centre of the city (referred to by the excavators as the agora) and which occupies the northern part of H2 Block, was built on roughly the same principle. The temple complex had a large courtyard in the middle, a monumental entrance, and a sanctuary with a pronaos (portico) in front and three naoi (chambers) at the back. There were numerous small rooms around the courtyard, some of which were probably shrines that were consecrated to various deities. A relief on the sanctuary of the temple shows the goddess Atargatis, with a lion on either side of her, and her husband Hadad nearby. A cult standard is depicted between the two deities. Atargatis was the mother of Adonis; Hadad and Adonis could also be worshipped here. Various inscriptions by ancient visitors tell of the people who visited the sanctuary. That the temple was frequented by people from Hatra is shown by a visitor's inscription, in Hatran (an Aramaic language), that is addressed to the god of the city of Hatra named Šamaš. Otherwise, a striking number of inscriptions in the temple, some of which were scratched into the walls, were made by women. There is an inscription from the first half of the first century AD that mentions the consecration of a chapel. A number of other inscriptions date from 69 AD. Some of the women named in the inscriptions appear to have come from the family of the governors of Dura Europos. One woman was the granddaughter of the governor Lysias, another woman the wife of the governor Seleucus. In a wall of the temple there was a cuneiform tablet with old Babylonian script, which names the place as Da wa ra, which may be an old name for Dura. In the southeast part of the site, which was separated from the rest of the city by a wadi, apparently stood an acropolis typical of a Greek city. However, hardly anything has survived from the temples of that time. The Temple of Zeus Theos was built in the second century AD and was among the most important sanctuaries of the city. The building was in the centre of the city. It had an area of around and occupied half an insula. The building had a monumental courtyard and in it a large naos. The cult figure of the god was depicted on the back wall. He stood next to a chariot and was crowned by two Nikes. On the side walls of the hall are the pictures of the donors, and their family members, who financed this temple. thumb|upright=0.7|left|The female protective deity of Palmyra from the Temple of the Gadde
The Temple of the Gadde was a double temple dedicated to the patron deities (gaddē) of the city and of Palmyra. The building is located near the agora. The temple was built in the last years of Parthian rule. A propylaeon (monumental gateway) led into a courtyard; opposite the gateway was the cella with other rooms. On the right side, a hall with benches on the walls led to another courtyard, with another cella there. The exact age of the temple complex is unknown. It was expanded several times over time. Two consecration reliefs were found in the temple. One of them shows the female protective deity of Palmyra in a guise modelled on the Tyche of Antioch. She sits between two figures, wearing a mural crown and Greek clothing. On her left is the dedicator of the relief, depicted as a priest, and on her right a Nike. The other depicts the male patron deity of Dura Europos, bearded and wearing a tunic. It is very likely a depiction of Zeus Megistos. To his right is Seleukos Nikator, on the left is the one consecrating the relief. The city was founded by Seleukos Nikator, so the ruler enjoyed a special veneration here. According to an inscription, the reliefs were dedicated to "The god, Gad of Dura; made by Hairan bar Maliku Nasor, in the month of Nisan, year 470 [159 AD]." The cella also contained a relief that depicted the Semitic god Yarhibol. An inscription records "Bani Mitha, the archers" as the donors. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief with the god Arsu, from the Temple of Adonis
The Temple of Adonis was also built in Parthian times. It is also a temple complex that is grouped around a courtyard. The actual temple was located to the south and consisted of a pronaos and the naos. Wall paintings, which were discovered in a fragmentary state, depicted a statue and a family making an offering to the god on a fire altar at left. The scene has been reconstructed. In the temple complex there was also another relief, which shows the god Arsu on a camel. The inscription under the figure reads: "Oga the sculptor has made (this to) 'Arsu the camel rider', for the life of his son". The Temple of Artemis Azzanathkona was on the north side of the city and had two naoi. The temple has stood here since at least 13 AD. In Roman times, the complex was partly integrated into the military camp, although the cult worship was continued. The archive of the Cohors XX Palmyrenorum was found in one room of the temple. An inscription from 161 AD said that the temple was dedicated to Artemis Azzanathkona. Her followers believed in a "syncretized combination" of a Greek goddess Artemis and local Syrian deity Azzanathkona (Atargatis). thumb|upright=0.7|left|Relief with figure of Iarhibol from Dolicheneum
The Dolicheneum was a temple where Jupiter Dolichenus and the god called Zeus Helios Mithras Turmasgade may have been worshiped. The temple entrance was in the south part. The building had a columned courtyard with two altars; behind it were two cellae. The temple was therefore dedicated to two deities. Various rooms were arranged around the courtyard, some of them had benches along the walls. Remnants of wall paintings were also found in one room. Various inscriptions were discovered in and around the temple. One cella was dedicated to the little known god Turmasgade. The second cella was for Jupiter Dolichenus, several dedications to whom were found in the temple. Another room was dedicated to an unnamed goddess, probably Juno Dolichena. The temple was built by units of the Roman army around 211 AD, and was in use until 256 AD, mainly by Roman soldiers stationed in the city. Soldiers left several inscriptions that mention "centurio princeps of a vexillation of IV (Scythia) and XVI Flavia Firma, a vexillation of Cohors II Paphlagonum with the titles 'Galliana Volusiana', a cohors equitata with the same titles, and Julius Julianus, of A. D. 251". thumb|upright=0.7|Head, perhaps of Zeus Megistos
The Temple of Zeus Megistos (second century AD) on the Acropolis probably replaced a Greek temple of Zeus Olympius. The assignment of the temple to Zeus Megistos is based only on a dedicatory inscription, according to which parts of the building were made by Seleucus, Strategos (strategos kai epistates) of the city, rebuilt and consecrated to the god. The inscription dates to 169/170 AD and tells of numerous construction works on the temple, perhaps after it was destroyed by an earthquake. Probably then the building received its final form. The founder, Seleukos, was practically a governor in Dura Europos and belonged to a Greek family who held this office for several generations. The governor's family's house was right next to the temple. Other members of the governor's family, such as Lysias, are also mentioned in inscriptions, but no titles are mentioned, so there is a possibility that these are other people of the same name who did not belong to the governor's family. thumb|upright=0.7|left|The stele from the Temple of Zeus Kyrios
The Temple of Zeus Kyrios was a small sanctuary built against the city wall. A stele was found in the sanctuary, with either a cult image or a dedicatory relief on it. The stele shows Zeus seated on the right and a donor who appears to be a Palmyrene man. The stele has a Palmyrene language inscription that states that it was erected by Baratheh, son of Luke and his son Abubuhi in 31 AD. The god is named as Baalshamin. A Greek inscription also gives the name of the donor as Seleukos, son of Luke, and names the god as Zeus. A further Greek inscription on the stele again names Seleukos, gives the date, and refers to the god as Zeus Kyrios. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief of Aphrodite in a niche
Multiple images of Greco Roman deities were also found. Among them are Nemesis, Nike, and Aphrodite. One of the reliefs of Aphrodite was found in a private house, and is one of three such reliefs that were made in the same mold. The composition is derived from Hellenistic art, but the goddess's attributes—her bracelets, anklets, breast ornaments, and lack of modesty—is similar to the images of nude Near Eastern fertility goddesses. Perhaps it can explain her popularity at Dura Europos. The relief is dated to 200 256 AD. The house where the relief was found is close to the military quarter and may have been a brothel. Two other nearly identical and one fragmentary versions of this relief were excavated across the site. One of the additional Aphrodite reliefs was found at what is called the House of Priests, which led to speculation about women's roles in the domestic cult. A marble statue of Aphrodite Urania was found in the Temple of Artemis; it is thought to have been imported to Dura Europos. Wall paintings of Aphrodite and Cupid were found in the House of Scribes. It was dedicated to the goddess by soldiers on behalf of their commander and his family.
Храм Атаргатис, расположенный к югу от центра города (называемый археологами агорой) и занимающий северную часть блока H2, был построен по схожему принципу. Храмовый комплекс имел большой двор в центре, монументальный вход и святилище с пронаосом (портиком) спереди и тремя наосами (помещениями) сзади. Вокруг двора располагалось множество небольших комнат, некоторые из которых, вероятно, были святилищами, посвященными различным божествам. На святилище храма изображен рельеф богини Атаргатис со львом по обе стороны от нее и ее мужем Хададом рядом. Между двумя божествами изображен культовый штандарт. Атаргатис была матерью Адониса; Хадад и Адонис также могли быть почитаемы здесь. Различные надписи древних посетителей рассказывают о людях, посещавших святилище. То, что храм посещали люди из Хатры, подтверждается надписью посетителя на хатранском (арамейском языке), адресованной богу города Хатры по имени Шамаш. Кроме того, поразительное количество надписей в храме, некоторые из которых были выцарапаны на стенах, были сделаны женщинами. Существует надпись, датируемая первой половиной I века н.э., в которой упоминается освящение часовни. Ряд других надписей датируется 69 годом н.э. Некоторые из женщин, упомянутых в надписях, по-видимому, происходили из семей губернаторов Дура-Европоса. Одна женщина была внучкой губернатора Лисия, другая – женой губернатора Селевка. В стене храма была обнаружена клинописная табличка с древневавилонской письменностью, в которой место называется Давара, что может быть древним названием Дуры.
There were at least three Palmyric temples in the city. The Temple of Bel (also known as the Temple of the Palmyric Gods) was built in one corner of the city wall, in the third century BC. Several construction phases can be distinguished in the building. The plan consisted of various rooms ranged around a courtyard; the actual temple stood to the north and was later marked by four columns. This temple was once richly decorated with wall paintings. There was also a shrine here, which probably contained the cult image. A small sanctuary of Bel, consisted of a single hall, was also found. The Necropolis Temple was built in 33 BC and, according to the inscriptions, was dedicated to Baal and Yarhibol. The temple was just outside the city and probably was maintained until the city's abandonment. Although the temple was located in the city's necropolis, it was built prior; and the cult there had no connection to the cemetery. The temple could have been a first port of call for caravans coming from Palmyra. A cistern next to the temple may have served to water pack animals. Remains of wall paintings were found in the temple. Three inscriptions are particularly important. The oldest of them, written in Palmyric, dates from 33 BC (year 279 of the Seleucid era) It is the oldest known inscription at Dura Europos; and when it was found and published in 1935, it was the oldest known Palmyric inscription anywhere. The names of the founders of the temple are known: Zabdibol, son of Ba'yashu, and Maliku, son of Ramu. Zabdibol came from the Bene Gaddibol clan, Maliku from that of the Bene Komare. The donors were obviously Palmyrians who lived in Dura Europos. It is noteworthy that the donors come from two different clans. In inscriptions at Palmyra, when different donors are named together, they come from the same clan. The Bene Gaddibol clan is well documented in Palmyra, where belonging to a clan was an important part of one's identity. In Dura Europos clan membership obviously lost its meaning, and two people from different clans could appear together in inscriptions. In Dura Europos, their identity was their common Palmyrene origin. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief from the Temple of Atargatis
thumb|upright=0.7|Thymiaterion (incense altar) from the Cistern at the Temple of Atargatis. It depicts a group of deer, Atargatis sacred animals. The Temple of Atargatis, which is south of the centre of the city (referred to by the excavators as the agora) and which occupies the northern part of H2 Block, was built on roughly the same principle. The temple complex had a large courtyard in the middle, a monumental entrance, and a sanctuary with a pronaos (portico) in front and three naoi (chambers) at the back. There were numerous small rooms around the courtyard, some of which were probably shrines that were consecrated to various deities. A relief on the sanctuary of the temple shows the goddess Atargatis, with a lion on either side of her, and her husband Hadad nearby. A cult standard is depicted between the two deities. Atargatis was the mother of Adonis; Hadad and Adonis could also be worshipped here. Various inscriptions by ancient visitors tell of the people who visited the sanctuary. That the temple was frequented by people from Hatra is shown by a visitor's inscription, in Hatran (an Aramaic language), that is addressed to the god of the city of Hatra named Šamaš. Otherwise, a striking number of inscriptions in the temple, some of which were scratched into the walls, were made by women. There is an inscription from the first half of the first century AD that mentions the consecration of a chapel. A number of other inscriptions date from 69 AD. Some of the women named in the inscriptions appear to have come from the family of the governors of Dura Europos. One woman was the granddaughter of the governor Lysias, another woman the wife of the governor Seleucus. In a wall of the temple there was a cuneiform tablet with old Babylonian script, which names the place as Da wa ra, which may be an old name for Dura. In the southeast part of the site, which was separated from the rest of the city by a wadi, apparently stood an acropolis typical of a Greek city. However, hardly anything has survived from the temples of that time. The Temple of Zeus Theos was built in the second century AD and was among the most important sanctuaries of the city. The building was in the centre of the city. It had an area of around and occupied half an insula. The building had a monumental courtyard and in it a large naos. The cult figure of the god was depicted on the back wall. He stood next to a chariot and was crowned by two Nikes. On the side walls of the hall are the pictures of the donors, and their family members, who financed this temple. thumb|upright=0.7|left|The female protective deity of Palmyra from the Temple of the Gadde
The Temple of the Gadde was a double temple dedicated to the patron deities (gaddē) of the city and of Palmyra. The building is located near the agora. The temple was built in the last years of Parthian rule. A propylaeon (monumental gateway) led into a courtyard; opposite the gateway was the cella with other rooms. On the right side, a hall with benches on the walls led to another courtyard, with another cella there. The exact age of the temple complex is unknown. It was expanded several times over time. Two consecration reliefs were found in the temple. One of them shows the female protective deity of Palmyra in a guise modelled on the Tyche of Antioch. She sits between two figures, wearing a mural crown and Greek clothing. On her left is the dedicator of the relief, depicted as a priest, and on her right a Nike. The other depicts the male patron deity of Dura Europos, bearded and wearing a tunic. It is very likely a depiction of Zeus Megistos. To his right is Seleukos Nikator, on the left is the one consecrating the relief. The city was founded by Seleukos Nikator, so the ruler enjoyed a special veneration here. According to an inscription, the reliefs were dedicated to "The god, Gad of Dura; made by Hairan bar Maliku Nasor, in the month of Nisan, year 470 [159 AD]." The cella also contained a relief that depicted the Semitic god Yarhibol. An inscription records "Bani Mitha, the archers" as the donors. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief with the god Arsu, from the Temple of Adonis
The Temple of Adonis was also built in Parthian times. It is also a temple complex that is grouped around a courtyard. The actual temple was located to the south and consisted of a pronaos and the naos. Wall paintings, which were discovered in a fragmentary state, depicted a statue and a family making an offering to the god on a fire altar at left. The scene has been reconstructed. In the temple complex there was also another relief, which shows the god Arsu on a camel. The inscription under the figure reads: "Oga the sculptor has made (this to) 'Arsu the camel rider', for the life of his son". The Temple of Artemis Azzanathkona was on the north side of the city and had two naoi. The temple has stood here since at least 13 AD. In Roman times, the complex was partly integrated into the military camp, although the cult worship was continued. The archive of the Cohors XX Palmyrenorum was found in one room of the temple. An inscription from 161 AD said that the temple was dedicated to Artemis Azzanathkona. Her followers believed in a "syncretized combination" of a Greek goddess Artemis and local Syrian deity Azzanathkona (Atargatis). thumb|upright=0.7|left|Relief with figure of Iarhibol from Dolicheneum
The Dolicheneum was a temple where Jupiter Dolichenus and the god called Zeus Helios Mithras Turmasgade may have been worshiped. The temple entrance was in the south part. The building had a columned courtyard with two altars; behind it were two cellae. The temple was therefore dedicated to two deities. Various rooms were arranged around the courtyard, some of them had benches along the walls. Remnants of wall paintings were also found in one room. Various inscriptions were discovered in and around the temple. One cella was dedicated to the little known god Turmasgade. The second cella was for Jupiter Dolichenus, several dedications to whom were found in the temple. Another room was dedicated to an unnamed goddess, probably Juno Dolichena. The temple was built by units of the Roman army around 211 AD, and was in use until 256 AD, mainly by Roman soldiers stationed in the city. Soldiers left several inscriptions that mention "centurio princeps of a vexillation of IV (Scythia) and XVI Flavia Firma, a vexillation of Cohors II Paphlagonum with the titles 'Galliana Volusiana', a cohors equitata with the same titles, and Julius Julianus, of A. D. 251". thumb|upright=0.7|Head, perhaps of Zeus Megistos
The Temple of Zeus Megistos (second century AD) on the Acropolis probably replaced a Greek temple of Zeus Olympius. The assignment of the temple to Zeus Megistos is based only on a dedicatory inscription, according to which parts of the building were made by Seleucus, Strategos (strategos kai epistates) of the city, rebuilt and consecrated to the god. The inscription dates to 169/170 AD and tells of numerous construction works on the temple, perhaps after it was destroyed by an earthquake. Probably then the building received its final form. The founder, Seleukos, was practically a governor in Dura Europos and belonged to a Greek family who held this office for several generations. The governor's family's house was right next to the temple. Other members of the governor's family, such as Lysias, are also mentioned in inscriptions, but no titles are mentioned, so there is a possibility that these are other people of the same name who did not belong to the governor's family. thumb|upright=0.7|left|The stele from the Temple of Zeus Kyrios
The Temple of Zeus Kyrios was a small sanctuary built against the city wall. A stele was found in the sanctuary, with either a cult image or a dedicatory relief on it. The stele shows Zeus seated on the right and a donor who appears to be a Palmyrene man. The stele has a Palmyrene language inscription that states that it was erected by Baratheh, son of Luke and his son Abubuhi in 31 AD. The god is named as Baalshamin. A Greek inscription also gives the name of the donor as Seleukos, son of Luke, and names the god as Zeus. A further Greek inscription on the stele again names Seleukos, gives the date, and refers to the god as Zeus Kyrios. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief of Aphrodite in a niche
Multiple images of Greco Roman deities were also found. Among them are Nemesis, Nike, and Aphrodite. One of the reliefs of Aphrodite was found in a private house, and is one of three such reliefs that were made in the same mold. The composition is derived from Hellenistic art, but the goddess's attributes—her bracelets, anklets, breast ornaments, and lack of modesty—is similar to the images of nude Near Eastern fertility goddesses. Perhaps it can explain her popularity at Dura Europos. The relief is dated to 200 256 AD. The house where the relief was found is close to the military quarter and may have been a brothel. Two other nearly identical and one fragmentary versions of this relief were excavated across the site. One of the additional Aphrodite reliefs was found at what is called the House of Priests, which led to speculation about women's roles in the domestic cult. A marble statue of Aphrodite Urania was found in the Temple of Artemis; it is thought to have been imported to Dura Europos. Wall paintings of Aphrodite and Cupid were found in the House of Scribes. It was dedicated to the goddess by soldiers on behalf of their commander and his family.
В юго-восточной части участка, отделенной от остального города вади, предположительно находился акрополь, типичный для греческого города. Однако от храмов того времени сохранилось почти ничего. Храм Зевса Теоса был построен во II веке н.э. и был одним из важнейших святилищ города. Здание находилось в центре города. Его площадь составляла около и занимало половину инсулы. В здании был монументальный двор и большой наос. Культовая статуя бога была изображена на задней стене. Он стоял рядом с колесницей и был увенчан двумя Никами. На боковых стенах зала изображены доноры и члены их семей, финансировавшие этот храм.
There were at least three Palmyric temples in the city. The Temple of Bel (also known as the Temple of the Palmyric Gods) was built in one corner of the city wall, in the third century BC. Several construction phases can be distinguished in the building. The plan consisted of various rooms ranged around a courtyard; the actual temple stood to the north and was later marked by four columns. This temple was once richly decorated with wall paintings. There was also a shrine here, which probably contained the cult image. A small sanctuary of Bel, consisted of a single hall, was also found. The Necropolis Temple was built in 33 BC and, according to the inscriptions, was dedicated to Baal and Yarhibol. The temple was just outside the city and probably was maintained until the city's abandonment. Although the temple was located in the city's necropolis, it was built prior; and the cult there had no connection to the cemetery. The temple could have been a first port of call for caravans coming from Palmyra. A cistern next to the temple may have served to water pack animals. Remains of wall paintings were found in the temple. Three inscriptions are particularly important. The oldest of them, written in Palmyric, dates from 33 BC (year 279 of the Seleucid era) It is the oldest known inscription at Dura Europos; and when it was found and published in 1935, it was the oldest known Palmyric inscription anywhere. The names of the founders of the temple are known: Zabdibol, son of Ba'yashu, and Maliku, son of Ramu. Zabdibol came from the Bene Gaddibol clan, Maliku from that of the Bene Komare. The donors were obviously Palmyrians who lived in Dura Europos. It is noteworthy that the donors come from two different clans. In inscriptions at Palmyra, when different donors are named together, they come from the same clan. The Bene Gaddibol clan is well documented in Palmyra, where belonging to a clan was an important part of one's identity. In Dura Europos clan membership obviously lost its meaning, and two people from different clans could appear together in inscriptions. In Dura Europos, their identity was their common Palmyrene origin. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief from the Temple of Atargatis
thumb|upright=0.7|Thymiaterion (incense altar) from the Cistern at the Temple of Atargatis. It depicts a group of deer, Atargatis sacred animals. The Temple of Atargatis, which is south of the centre of the city (referred to by the excavators as the agora) and which occupies the northern part of H2 Block, was built on roughly the same principle. The temple complex had a large courtyard in the middle, a monumental entrance, and a sanctuary with a pronaos (portico) in front and three naoi (chambers) at the back. There were numerous small rooms around the courtyard, some of which were probably shrines that were consecrated to various deities. A relief on the sanctuary of the temple shows the goddess Atargatis, with a lion on either side of her, and her husband Hadad nearby. A cult standard is depicted between the two deities. Atargatis was the mother of Adonis; Hadad and Adonis could also be worshipped here. Various inscriptions by ancient visitors tell of the people who visited the sanctuary. That the temple was frequented by people from Hatra is shown by a visitor's inscription, in Hatran (an Aramaic language), that is addressed to the god of the city of Hatra named Šamaš. Otherwise, a striking number of inscriptions in the temple, some of which were scratched into the walls, were made by women. There is an inscription from the first half of the first century AD that mentions the consecration of a chapel. A number of other inscriptions date from 69 AD. Some of the women named in the inscriptions appear to have come from the family of the governors of Dura Europos. One woman was the granddaughter of the governor Lysias, another woman the wife of the governor Seleucus. In a wall of the temple there was a cuneiform tablet with old Babylonian script, which names the place as Da wa ra, which may be an old name for Dura. In the southeast part of the site, which was separated from the rest of the city by a wadi, apparently stood an acropolis typical of a Greek city. However, hardly anything has survived from the temples of that time. The Temple of Zeus Theos was built in the second century AD and was among the most important sanctuaries of the city. The building was in the centre of the city. It had an area of around and occupied half an insula. The building had a monumental courtyard and in it a large naos. The cult figure of the god was depicted on the back wall. He stood next to a chariot and was crowned by two Nikes. On the side walls of the hall are the pictures of the donors, and their family members, who financed this temple. thumb|upright=0.7|left|The female protective deity of Palmyra from the Temple of the Gadde
The Temple of the Gadde was a double temple dedicated to the patron deities (gaddē) of the city and of Palmyra. The building is located near the agora. The temple was built in the last years of Parthian rule. A propylaeon (monumental gateway) led into a courtyard; opposite the gateway was the cella with other rooms. On the right side, a hall with benches on the walls led to another courtyard, with another cella there. The exact age of the temple complex is unknown. It was expanded several times over time. Two consecration reliefs were found in the temple. One of them shows the female protective deity of Palmyra in a guise modelled on the Tyche of Antioch. She sits between two figures, wearing a mural crown and Greek clothing. On her left is the dedicator of the relief, depicted as a priest, and on her right a Nike. The other depicts the male patron deity of Dura Europos, bearded and wearing a tunic. It is very likely a depiction of Zeus Megistos. To his right is Seleukos Nikator, on the left is the one consecrating the relief. The city was founded by Seleukos Nikator, so the ruler enjoyed a special veneration here. According to an inscription, the reliefs were dedicated to "The god, Gad of Dura; made by Hairan bar Maliku Nasor, in the month of Nisan, year 470 [159 AD]." The cella also contained a relief that depicted the Semitic god Yarhibol. An inscription records "Bani Mitha, the archers" as the donors. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief with the god Arsu, from the Temple of Adonis
The Temple of Adonis was also built in Parthian times. It is also a temple complex that is grouped around a courtyard. The actual temple was located to the south and consisted of a pronaos and the naos. Wall paintings, which were discovered in a fragmentary state, depicted a statue and a family making an offering to the god on a fire altar at left. The scene has been reconstructed. In the temple complex there was also another relief, which shows the god Arsu on a camel. The inscription under the figure reads: "Oga the sculptor has made (this to) 'Arsu the camel rider', for the life of his son". The Temple of Artemis Azzanathkona was on the north side of the city and had two naoi. The temple has stood here since at least 13 AD. In Roman times, the complex was partly integrated into the military camp, although the cult worship was continued. The archive of the Cohors XX Palmyrenorum was found in one room of the temple. An inscription from 161 AD said that the temple was dedicated to Artemis Azzanathkona. Her followers believed in a "syncretized combination" of a Greek goddess Artemis and local Syrian deity Azzanathkona (Atargatis). thumb|upright=0.7|left|Relief with figure of Iarhibol from Dolicheneum
The Dolicheneum was a temple where Jupiter Dolichenus and the god called Zeus Helios Mithras Turmasgade may have been worshiped. The temple entrance was in the south part. The building had a columned courtyard with two altars; behind it were two cellae. The temple was therefore dedicated to two deities. Various rooms were arranged around the courtyard, some of them had benches along the walls. Remnants of wall paintings were also found in one room. Various inscriptions were discovered in and around the temple. One cella was dedicated to the little known god Turmasgade. The second cella was for Jupiter Dolichenus, several dedications to whom were found in the temple. Another room was dedicated to an unnamed goddess, probably Juno Dolichena. The temple was built by units of the Roman army around 211 AD, and was in use until 256 AD, mainly by Roman soldiers stationed in the city. Soldiers left several inscriptions that mention "centurio princeps of a vexillation of IV (Scythia) and XVI Flavia Firma, a vexillation of Cohors II Paphlagonum with the titles 'Galliana Volusiana', a cohors equitata with the same titles, and Julius Julianus, of A. D. 251". thumb|upright=0.7|Head, perhaps of Zeus Megistos
The Temple of Zeus Megistos (second century AD) on the Acropolis probably replaced a Greek temple of Zeus Olympius. The assignment of the temple to Zeus Megistos is based only on a dedicatory inscription, according to which parts of the building were made by Seleucus, Strategos (strategos kai epistates) of the city, rebuilt and consecrated to the god. The inscription dates to 169/170 AD and tells of numerous construction works on the temple, perhaps after it was destroyed by an earthquake. Probably then the building received its final form. The founder, Seleukos, was practically a governor in Dura Europos and belonged to a Greek family who held this office for several generations. The governor's family's house was right next to the temple. Other members of the governor's family, such as Lysias, are also mentioned in inscriptions, but no titles are mentioned, so there is a possibility that these are other people of the same name who did not belong to the governor's family. thumb|upright=0.7|left|The stele from the Temple of Zeus Kyrios
The Temple of Zeus Kyrios was a small sanctuary built against the city wall. A stele was found in the sanctuary, with either a cult image or a dedicatory relief on it. The stele shows Zeus seated on the right and a donor who appears to be a Palmyrene man. The stele has a Palmyrene language inscription that states that it was erected by Baratheh, son of Luke and his son Abubuhi in 31 AD. The god is named as Baalshamin. A Greek inscription also gives the name of the donor as Seleukos, son of Luke, and names the god as Zeus. A further Greek inscription on the stele again names Seleukos, gives the date, and refers to the god as Zeus Kyrios. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief of Aphrodite in a niche
Multiple images of Greco Roman deities were also found. Among them are Nemesis, Nike, and Aphrodite. One of the reliefs of Aphrodite was found in a private house, and is one of three such reliefs that were made in the same mold. The composition is derived from Hellenistic art, but the goddess's attributes—her bracelets, anklets, breast ornaments, and lack of modesty—is similar to the images of nude Near Eastern fertility goddesses. Perhaps it can explain her popularity at Dura Europos. The relief is dated to 200 256 AD. The house where the relief was found is close to the military quarter and may have been a brothel. Two other nearly identical and one fragmentary versions of this relief were excavated across the site. One of the additional Aphrodite reliefs was found at what is called the House of Priests, which led to speculation about women's roles in the domestic cult. A marble statue of Aphrodite Urania was found in the Temple of Artemis; it is thought to have been imported to Dura Europos. Wall paintings of Aphrodite and Cupid were found in the House of Scribes. It was dedicated to the goddess by soldiers on behalf of their commander and his family.
Храм Гадде был двойным храмом, посвященным покровительствующим божествам (гадде) города и Пальмиры. Здание расположено недалеко от агоры. Храм был построен в последние годы правления Парфян. Пропилеи (монументальные ворота) вели во двор; напротив ворот находилась келла с другими комнатами. Справа зал со скамьями вдоль стен вел к другому двору, с другой келлой там. Точный возраст храмового комплекса неизвестен. Со временем он несколько раз расширялся. В храме были найдены два рельефа с посвящениями. На одном изображена женская богиня-покровительница Пальмиры в образе, вдохновленном Тихе Антиохийской. Она сидит между двумя фигурами, одетая в муальную корону и греческую одежду. Слева от нее – посвятитель рельефа, изображенный в виде жреца, а справа – Ника. Другой изображает мужского божества-покровителя Дура-Европоса, бородатого и одетого в тунику. Вероятно, это изображение Зевса Максимуса. Справа от него – Селевк Никатор, слева – тот, кто посвящает рельеф. Город был основан Селевком Никатором, поэтому правитель пользовался здесь особым почитанием. Согласно надписи, рельефы были посвящены "Богу, Гадду Дуры; сделано Хайраном сыном Малику Насора, в месяце нисан, год 470 [159 г. н.э.]". В келле также находился рельеф, изображающий семитского бога Ярхибола. В надписи указано "Бани Мита, лучники" в качестве доноров.
There were at least three Palmyric temples in the city. The Temple of Bel (also known as the Temple of the Palmyric Gods) was built in one corner of the city wall, in the third century BC. Several construction phases can be distinguished in the building. The plan consisted of various rooms ranged around a courtyard; the actual temple stood to the north and was later marked by four columns. This temple was once richly decorated with wall paintings. There was also a shrine here, which probably contained the cult image. A small sanctuary of Bel, consisted of a single hall, was also found. The Necropolis Temple was built in 33 BC and, according to the inscriptions, was dedicated to Baal and Yarhibol. The temple was just outside the city and probably was maintained until the city's abandonment. Although the temple was located in the city's necropolis, it was built prior; and the cult there had no connection to the cemetery. The temple could have been a first port of call for caravans coming from Palmyra. A cistern next to the temple may have served to water pack animals. Remains of wall paintings were found in the temple. Three inscriptions are particularly important. The oldest of them, written in Palmyric, dates from 33 BC (year 279 of the Seleucid era) It is the oldest known inscription at Dura Europos; and when it was found and published in 1935, it was the oldest known Palmyric inscription anywhere. The names of the founders of the temple are known: Zabdibol, son of Ba'yashu, and Maliku, son of Ramu. Zabdibol came from the Bene Gaddibol clan, Maliku from that of the Bene Komare. The donors were obviously Palmyrians who lived in Dura Europos. It is noteworthy that the donors come from two different clans. In inscriptions at Palmyra, when different donors are named together, they come from the same clan. The Bene Gaddibol clan is well documented in Palmyra, where belonging to a clan was an important part of one's identity. In Dura Europos clan membership obviously lost its meaning, and two people from different clans could appear together in inscriptions. In Dura Europos, their identity was their common Palmyrene origin. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief from the Temple of Atargatis
thumb|upright=0.7|Thymiaterion (incense altar) from the Cistern at the Temple of Atargatis. It depicts a group of deer, Atargatis sacred animals. The Temple of Atargatis, which is south of the centre of the city (referred to by the excavators as the agora) and which occupies the northern part of H2 Block, was built on roughly the same principle. The temple complex had a large courtyard in the middle, a monumental entrance, and a sanctuary with a pronaos (portico) in front and three naoi (chambers) at the back. There were numerous small rooms around the courtyard, some of which were probably shrines that were consecrated to various deities. A relief on the sanctuary of the temple shows the goddess Atargatis, with a lion on either side of her, and her husband Hadad nearby. A cult standard is depicted between the two deities. Atargatis was the mother of Adonis; Hadad and Adonis could also be worshipped here. Various inscriptions by ancient visitors tell of the people who visited the sanctuary. That the temple was frequented by people from Hatra is shown by a visitor's inscription, in Hatran (an Aramaic language), that is addressed to the god of the city of Hatra named Šamaš. Otherwise, a striking number of inscriptions in the temple, some of which were scratched into the walls, were made by women. There is an inscription from the first half of the first century AD that mentions the consecration of a chapel. A number of other inscriptions date from 69 AD. Some of the women named in the inscriptions appear to have come from the family of the governors of Dura Europos. One woman was the granddaughter of the governor Lysias, another woman the wife of the governor Seleucus. In a wall of the temple there was a cuneiform tablet with old Babylonian script, which names the place as Da wa ra, which may be an old name for Dura. In the southeast part of the site, which was separated from the rest of the city by a wadi, apparently stood an acropolis typical of a Greek city. However, hardly anything has survived from the temples of that time. The Temple of Zeus Theos was built in the second century AD and was among the most important sanctuaries of the city. The building was in the centre of the city. It had an area of around and occupied half an insula. The building had a monumental courtyard and in it a large naos. The cult figure of the god was depicted on the back wall. He stood next to a chariot and was crowned by two Nikes. On the side walls of the hall are the pictures of the donors, and their family members, who financed this temple. thumb|upright=0.7|left|The female protective deity of Palmyra from the Temple of the Gadde
The Temple of the Gadde was a double temple dedicated to the patron deities (gaddē) of the city and of Palmyra. The building is located near the agora. The temple was built in the last years of Parthian rule. A propylaeon (monumental gateway) led into a courtyard; opposite the gateway was the cella with other rooms. On the right side, a hall with benches on the walls led to another courtyard, with another cella there. The exact age of the temple complex is unknown. It was expanded several times over time. Two consecration reliefs were found in the temple. One of them shows the female protective deity of Palmyra in a guise modelled on the Tyche of Antioch. She sits between two figures, wearing a mural crown and Greek clothing. On her left is the dedicator of the relief, depicted as a priest, and on her right a Nike. The other depicts the male patron deity of Dura Europos, bearded and wearing a tunic. It is very likely a depiction of Zeus Megistos. To his right is Seleukos Nikator, on the left is the one consecrating the relief. The city was founded by Seleukos Nikator, so the ruler enjoyed a special veneration here. According to an inscription, the reliefs were dedicated to "The god, Gad of Dura; made by Hairan bar Maliku Nasor, in the month of Nisan, year 470 [159 AD]." The cella also contained a relief that depicted the Semitic god Yarhibol. An inscription records "Bani Mitha, the archers" as the donors. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief with the god Arsu, from the Temple of Adonis
The Temple of Adonis was also built in Parthian times. It is also a temple complex that is grouped around a courtyard. The actual temple was located to the south and consisted of a pronaos and the naos. Wall paintings, which were discovered in a fragmentary state, depicted a statue and a family making an offering to the god on a fire altar at left. The scene has been reconstructed. In the temple complex there was also another relief, which shows the god Arsu on a camel. The inscription under the figure reads: "Oga the sculptor has made (this to) 'Arsu the camel rider', for the life of his son". The Temple of Artemis Azzanathkona was on the north side of the city and had two naoi. The temple has stood here since at least 13 AD. In Roman times, the complex was partly integrated into the military camp, although the cult worship was continued. The archive of the Cohors XX Palmyrenorum was found in one room of the temple. An inscription from 161 AD said that the temple was dedicated to Artemis Azzanathkona. Her followers believed in a "syncretized combination" of a Greek goddess Artemis and local Syrian deity Azzanathkona (Atargatis). thumb|upright=0.7|left|Relief with figure of Iarhibol from Dolicheneum
The Dolicheneum was a temple where Jupiter Dolichenus and the god called Zeus Helios Mithras Turmasgade may have been worshiped. The temple entrance was in the south part. The building had a columned courtyard with two altars; behind it were two cellae. The temple was therefore dedicated to two deities. Various rooms were arranged around the courtyard, some of them had benches along the walls. Remnants of wall paintings were also found in one room. Various inscriptions were discovered in and around the temple. One cella was dedicated to the little known god Turmasgade. The second cella was for Jupiter Dolichenus, several dedications to whom were found in the temple. Another room was dedicated to an unnamed goddess, probably Juno Dolichena. The temple was built by units of the Roman army around 211 AD, and was in use until 256 AD, mainly by Roman soldiers stationed in the city. Soldiers left several inscriptions that mention "centurio princeps of a vexillation of IV (Scythia) and XVI Flavia Firma, a vexillation of Cohors II Paphlagonum with the titles 'Galliana Volusiana', a cohors equitata with the same titles, and Julius Julianus, of A. D. 251". thumb|upright=0.7|Head, perhaps of Zeus Megistos
The Temple of Zeus Megistos (second century AD) on the Acropolis probably replaced a Greek temple of Zeus Olympius. The assignment of the temple to Zeus Megistos is based only on a dedicatory inscription, according to which parts of the building were made by Seleucus, Strategos (strategos kai epistates) of the city, rebuilt and consecrated to the god. The inscription dates to 169/170 AD and tells of numerous construction works on the temple, perhaps after it was destroyed by an earthquake. Probably then the building received its final form. The founder, Seleukos, was practically a governor in Dura Europos and belonged to a Greek family who held this office for several generations. The governor's family's house was right next to the temple. Other members of the governor's family, such as Lysias, are also mentioned in inscriptions, but no titles are mentioned, so there is a possibility that these are other people of the same name who did not belong to the governor's family. thumb|upright=0.7|left|The stele from the Temple of Zeus Kyrios
The Temple of Zeus Kyrios was a small sanctuary built against the city wall. A stele was found in the sanctuary, with either a cult image or a dedicatory relief on it. The stele shows Zeus seated on the right and a donor who appears to be a Palmyrene man. The stele has a Palmyrene language inscription that states that it was erected by Baratheh, son of Luke and his son Abubuhi in 31 AD. The god is named as Baalshamin. A Greek inscription also gives the name of the donor as Seleukos, son of Luke, and names the god as Zeus. A further Greek inscription on the stele again names Seleukos, gives the date, and refers to the god as Zeus Kyrios. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief of Aphrodite in a niche
Multiple images of Greco Roman deities were also found. Among them are Nemesis, Nike, and Aphrodite. One of the reliefs of Aphrodite was found in a private house, and is one of three such reliefs that were made in the same mold. The composition is derived from Hellenistic art, but the goddess's attributes—her bracelets, anklets, breast ornaments, and lack of modesty—is similar to the images of nude Near Eastern fertility goddesses. Perhaps it can explain her popularity at Dura Europos. The relief is dated to 200 256 AD. The house where the relief was found is close to the military quarter and may have been a brothel. Two other nearly identical and one fragmentary versions of this relief were excavated across the site. One of the additional Aphrodite reliefs was found at what is called the House of Priests, which led to speculation about women's roles in the domestic cult. A marble statue of Aphrodite Urania was found in the Temple of Artemis; it is thought to have been imported to Dura Europos. Wall paintings of Aphrodite and Cupid were found in the House of Scribes. It was dedicated to the goddess by soldiers on behalf of their commander and his family.
Храм Адониса также был построен в парфянское время. Это также храмовый комплекс, сгруппированный вокруг двора. Сам храм находился на юге и состоял из пронаоса и наоса. Настенные росписи, обнаруженные в фрагментарном состоянии, изображали статую и семью, приносящую жертву богу на жертвеннике слева. Сцена была реконструирована. В храмовом комплексе также был другой рельеф, изображающий бога Арсу на верблюде. Надпись под фигурой гласит: "Ога скульптор вырезал...".
There were at least three Palmyric temples in the city. The Temple of Bel (also known as the Temple of the Palmyric Gods) was built in one corner of the city wall, in the third century BC. Several construction phases can be distinguished in the building. The plan consisted of various rooms ranged around a courtyard; the actual temple stood to the north and was later marked by four columns. This temple was once richly decorated with wall paintings. There was also a shrine here, which probably contained the cult image. A small sanctuary of Bel, consisted of a single hall, was also found. The Necropolis Temple was built in 33 BC and, according to the inscriptions, was dedicated to Baal and Yarhibol. The temple was just outside the city and probably was maintained until the city's abandonment. Although the temple was located in the city's necropolis, it was built prior; and the cult there had no connection to the cemetery. The temple could have been a first port of call for caravans coming from Palmyra. A cistern next to the temple may have served to water pack animals. Remains of wall paintings were found in the temple. Three inscriptions are particularly important. The oldest of them, written in Palmyric, dates from 33 BC (year 279 of the Seleucid era) It is the oldest known inscription at Dura Europos; and when it was found and published in 1935, it was the oldest known Palmyric inscription anywhere. The names of the founders of the temple are known: Zabdibol, son of Ba'yashu, and Maliku, son of Ramu. Zabdibol came from the Bene Gaddibol clan, Maliku from that of the Bene Komare. The donors were obviously Palmyrians who lived in Dura Europos. It is noteworthy that the donors come from two different clans. In inscriptions at Palmyra, when different donors are named together, they come from the same clan. The Bene Gaddibol clan is well documented in Palmyra, where belonging to a clan was an important part of one's identity. In Dura Europos clan membership obviously lost its meaning, and two people from different clans could appear together in inscriptions. In Dura Europos, their identity was their common Palmyrene origin. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief from the Temple of Atargatis
thumb|upright=0.7|Thymiaterion (incense altar) from the Cistern at the Temple of Atargatis. It depicts a group of deer, Atargatis sacred animals. The Temple of Atargatis, which is south of the centre of the city (referred to by the excavators as the agora) and which occupies the northern part of H2 Block, was built on roughly the same principle. The temple complex had a large courtyard in the middle, a monumental entrance, and a sanctuary with a pronaos (portico) in front and three naoi (chambers) at the back. There were numerous small rooms around the courtyard, some of which were probably shrines that were consecrated to various deities. A relief on the sanctuary of the temple shows the goddess Atargatis, with a lion on either side of her, and her husband Hadad nearby. A cult standard is depicted between the two deities. Atargatis was the mother of Adonis; Hadad and Adonis could also be worshipped here. Various inscriptions by ancient visitors tell of the people who visited the sanctuary. That the temple was frequented by people from Hatra is shown by a visitor's inscription, in Hatran (an Aramaic language), that is addressed to the god of the city of Hatra named Šamaš. Otherwise, a striking number of inscriptions in the temple, some of which were scratched into the walls, were made by women. There is an inscription from the first half of the first century AD that mentions the consecration of a chapel. A number of other inscriptions date from 69 AD. Some of the women named in the inscriptions appear to have come from the family of the governors of Dura Europos. One woman was the granddaughter of the governor Lysias, another woman the wife of the governor Seleucus. In a wall of the temple there was a cuneiform tablet with old Babylonian script, which names the place as Da wa ra, which may be an old name for Dura. In the southeast part of the site, which was separated from the rest of the city by a wadi, apparently stood an acropolis typical of a Greek city. However, hardly anything has survived from the temples of that time. The Temple of Zeus Theos was built in the second century AD and was among the most important sanctuaries of the city. The building was in the centre of the city. It had an area of around and occupied half an insula. The building had a monumental courtyard and in it a large naos. The cult figure of the god was depicted on the back wall. He stood next to a chariot and was crowned by two Nikes. On the side walls of the hall are the pictures of the donors, and their family members, who financed this temple. thumb|upright=0.7|left|The female protective deity of Palmyra from the Temple of the Gadde
The Temple of the Gadde was a double temple dedicated to the patron deities (gaddē) of the city and of Palmyra. The building is located near the agora. The temple was built in the last years of Parthian rule. A propylaeon (monumental gateway) led into a courtyard; opposite the gateway was the cella with other rooms. On the right side, a hall with benches on the walls led to another courtyard, with another cella there. The exact age of the temple complex is unknown. It was expanded several times over time. Two consecration reliefs were found in the temple. One of them shows the female protective deity of Palmyra in a guise modelled on the Tyche of Antioch. She sits between two figures, wearing a mural crown and Greek clothing. On her left is the dedicator of the relief, depicted as a priest, and on her right a Nike. The other depicts the male patron deity of Dura Europos, bearded and wearing a tunic. It is very likely a depiction of Zeus Megistos. To his right is Seleukos Nikator, on the left is the one consecrating the relief. The city was founded by Seleukos Nikator, so the ruler enjoyed a special veneration here. According to an inscription, the reliefs were dedicated to "The god, Gad of Dura; made by Hairan bar Maliku Nasor, in the month of Nisan, year 470 [159 AD]." The cella also contained a relief that depicted the Semitic god Yarhibol. An inscription records "Bani Mitha, the archers" as the donors. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief with the god Arsu, from the Temple of Adonis
The Temple of Adonis was also built in Parthian times. It is also a temple complex that is grouped around a courtyard. The actual temple was located to the south and consisted of a pronaos and the naos. Wall paintings, which were discovered in a fragmentary state, depicted a statue and a family making an offering to the god on a fire altar at left. The scene has been reconstructed. In the temple complex there was also another relief, which shows the god Arsu on a camel. The inscription under the figure reads: "Oga the sculptor has made (this to) 'Arsu the camel rider', for the life of his son". The Temple of Artemis Azzanathkona was on the north side of the city and had two naoi. The temple has stood here since at least 13 AD. In Roman times, the complex was partly integrated into the military camp, although the cult worship was continued. The archive of the Cohors XX Palmyrenorum was found in one room of the temple. An inscription from 161 AD said that the temple was dedicated to Artemis Azzanathkona. Her followers believed in a "syncretized combination" of a Greek goddess Artemis and local Syrian deity Azzanathkona (Atargatis). thumb|upright=0.7|left|Relief with figure of Iarhibol from Dolicheneum
The Dolicheneum was a temple where Jupiter Dolichenus and the god called Zeus Helios Mithras Turmasgade may have been worshiped. The temple entrance was in the south part. The building had a columned courtyard with two altars; behind it were two cellae. The temple was therefore dedicated to two deities. Various rooms were arranged around the courtyard, some of them had benches along the walls. Remnants of wall paintings were also found in one room. Various inscriptions were discovered in and around the temple. One cella was dedicated to the little known god Turmasgade. The second cella was for Jupiter Dolichenus, several dedications to whom were found in the temple. Another room was dedicated to an unnamed goddess, probably Juno Dolichena. The temple was built by units of the Roman army around 211 AD, and was in use until 256 AD, mainly by Roman soldiers stationed in the city. Soldiers left several inscriptions that mention "centurio princeps of a vexillation of IV (Scythia) and XVI Flavia Firma, a vexillation of Cohors II Paphlagonum with the titles 'Galliana Volusiana', a cohors equitata with the same titles, and Julius Julianus, of A. D. 251". thumb|upright=0.7|Head, perhaps of Zeus Megistos
The Temple of Zeus Megistos (second century AD) on the Acropolis probably replaced a Greek temple of Zeus Olympius. The assignment of the temple to Zeus Megistos is based only on a dedicatory inscription, according to which parts of the building were made by Seleucus, Strategos (strategos kai epistates) of the city, rebuilt and consecrated to the god. The inscription dates to 169/170 AD and tells of numerous construction works on the temple, perhaps after it was destroyed by an earthquake. Probably then the building received its final form. The founder, Seleukos, was practically a governor in Dura Europos and belonged to a Greek family who held this office for several generations. The governor's family's house was right next to the temple. Other members of the governor's family, such as Lysias, are also mentioned in inscriptions, but no titles are mentioned, so there is a possibility that these are other people of the same name who did not belong to the governor's family. thumb|upright=0.7|left|The stele from the Temple of Zeus Kyrios
The Temple of Zeus Kyrios was a small sanctuary built against the city wall. A stele was found in the sanctuary, with either a cult image or a dedicatory relief on it. The stele shows Zeus seated on the right and a donor who appears to be a Palmyrene man. The stele has a Palmyrene language inscription that states that it was erected by Baratheh, son of Luke and his son Abubuhi in 31 AD. The god is named as Baalshamin. A Greek inscription also gives the name of the donor as Seleukos, son of Luke, and names the god as Zeus. A further Greek inscription on the stele again names Seleukos, gives the date, and refers to the god as Zeus Kyrios. thumb|upright=0.7|Relief of Aphrodite in a niche
Multiple images of Greco Roman deities were also found. Among them are Nemesis, Nike, and Aphrodite. One of the reliefs of Aphrodite was found in a private house, and is one of three such reliefs that were made in the same mold. The composition is derived from Hellenistic art, but the goddess's attributes—her bracelets, anklets, breast ornaments, and lack of modesty—is similar to the images of nude Near Eastern fertility goddesses. Perhaps it can explain her popularity at Dura Europos. The relief is dated to 200 256 AD. The house where the relief was found is close to the military quarter and may have been a brothel. Two other nearly identical and one fragmentary versions of this relief were excavated across the site. One of the additional Aphrodite reliefs was found at what is called the House of Priests, which led to speculation about women's roles in the domestic cult. A marble statue of Aphrodite Urania was found in the Temple of Artemis; it is thought to have been imported to Dura Europos. Wall paintings of Aphrodite and Cupid were found in the House of Scribes. It was dedicated to the goddess by soldiers on behalf of their commander and his family.
Археология
Вид раскопок и Евфрата.
Обзор
Существование Dura Europos было давно известно из литературных источников. Его фактическое местоположение было вновь открыто американской "экспедицией Вольфа" в 1885 году, когда Джон Генри Хейнс сфотографировал Пальмиренские ворота. Британские войска под командованием капитана Мерфи, после Первой мировой войны и арабского восстания, также исследовали руины. 30 марта 1920 года солдат, копавший траншею, обнаружил в храме Бела поразительно хорошо сохранившиеся настенные росписи. Американский археолог Джеймс Генри Брестед, находившийся тогда в Багдаде, был оповещен. Крупномасштабные раскопки проводились в 1920-х и 1930-х годах французскими и американскими группами. Первые археологические исследования на этом месте, проведенные Францем Кумонтом и опубликованные в 1922–1923 годах, идентифицировали его как Dura Europos и обнаружили храм, после чего возобновившиеся боевые действия в регионе приостановили археологические работы. Позже возобновленные кампании под руководством Кларка Хопкинса и Майкла Ростовцева продолжались до 1937 года, когда финансирование иссякло, и была опубликована лишь часть результатов раскопок. В 1986 году раскопки были возобновлены в рамках совместной франко-сирийской миссии под руководством Пьера Лериша. Пятнадцать лет раскопок способствовали возрождению интереса к эллинистическому уровню (П. Лерише) и истории города благодаря исследованиям фортификационных сооружений (J. C. Bessac 1997), каменной архитектуры (J. Abdul Massih 2000) и саманной кладки (M. Gelin 2000). Миссия также возобновила изучение некоторых ранее раскопанных памятников, таких как Одеон, дворец Стратегоса, храмы Зевса Мегистоса, Бела и Азанаткона, а также домов островков C7 и D1.
Археологический памятник
Площадь участка разделена на равнинную часть площадью 45 га, ограниченную линией западного вала и извилистым расположением северного и южного вади, узкую часть, достигающую высоты 218 м и увенчанную стенами цитадели, и пониженную часть, расположенную на 20 м ниже вершины плато. Эта впадина образована слиянием двух оврагов: первый начинается на северо-востоке участка, проходит вдоль западной границы цитадели и впадает в восточно-западный овраг, прорезающий центр плато. Современная форма этого внутреннего вади является результатом как естественной эрозии, так и интенсивной разработки как каменного карьера, о чем свидетельствуют уступы выемок, расположенные под краем плато с западной стороны. Участок также подвергался землетрясениям, повторявшимся с древних времен, которые привели к обрушению восточной части цитадели и юго-восточного квартала участка. Ограждение, полностью расчищенное Йельской археологической экспедицией, сохранилось по высоте, за исключением нескольких участков северного и южного валов.
Археологические находки
Среди археологических находок были удивительно хорошо сохранившееся оружие и доспехи, принадлежавшие римскому гарнизону во время последней сасанидской осады 256 года нашей эры, включавшие в себя расписные деревянные щиты и полные конские доспехи, сохранившиеся благодаря окончательному разрушению города, который журналисты назвали «Помпеями пустыни». Находки из Дура-Европоса выставлены в музее Дейр-эз-Зор и художественной галерее Йельского университета. На месте было обнаружено два комплекта конской брони. Как пишет историк Лиза Броуди, «это открытие коренным образом изменило понимание историками римского кавалерийского снаряжения». Это единственные полные комплекты чешуйчатых доспехов для лошадей, когда-либо найденные. Каждый комплект доспехов был изготовлен из почти 2000 отдельных перекрывающихся тонких пластин, напоминающих чешую, соединенных проволокой. Подобные доспехи использовали парфяне, сасаниды, а позднее – римская тяжелая кавалерия. Археолог Саймон Джеймс писал об обнаружении чешуйчатых доспехов в башне 19. Скутум – это прямоугольный арочный щит, изготовленный преимущественно из дерева. Он был найден разбитым на тринадцать частей. Он состоит из деревянных полос шириной и толщиной. Они соединены в три слоя, так что общая толщина деревянного слоя составляет. В центре щита находится отверстие, вероятно, вырезанное в дереве после изготовления доски; умбо (центральный выступ) отсутствует. Задняя часть щита должна была быть усилена деревянными полосами, но они не были найдены. По всей видимости, задняя сторона была покрыта красной кожей, что упоминается в предварительном отчете о раскопках, который впоследствии был утерян. Поверхность передней стороны была покрыта тканью, а затем кожей или пергаментом с росписью. Вокруг центрального отверстия расположены несколько декоративных лент. Среди украшений – орел с лавровым венком, крылатые Виктории и лев. Сразу после завтрака были найдены три расписных щита, лежащие один на другом. Герб и я провели все утро, извлекая их. Большая часть дерева была достаточно прочной для легкого перемещения, и значительная часть росписи сохранилась. Команда исследователей также отметила, что «щит представляет собой интересное сочетание материалов – некоторые из них происходят из Сирии, а другие, вероятно, были привезены торговцами». В 2011 году Дура-Европос вновь вошла в этот список, наряду с близлежащим древним городом Мари. Жюри Международной премии Карло Скарпа за сады единогласно решило, что их награда 2010 года, двадцать первая из этих ежегодных наград, будет присуждена Дура-Европосу.
Грабежи ИГИЛ
Разграбление Дуры-Европос, 2011–2015 гг., спутниковые снимки DigitalGlobe. В период с 2011 по 2014 год, во время гражданской войны в Сирии, Дура-Европос была разграблена и в значительной степени разрушена ИГИЛ (запрещенная в России организация). В 2015 году, согласно данным спутниковой съемки, более 70% территории Дуры-Европос было разрушено мародерами; National Geographic также сообщил о дальнейших масштабных разграблениях этого объекта ИГИЛ с целью финансирования их контроля над регионом.
В популярной культуре
Огонь на Востоке (2008), первая книга в серии «Воин Рима» Оксфордского ученого Гарри Сайдеботтома, посвящена детальному описанию осады Дура-Европоса Сасанидами в 256 году н.э., основанному на археологических находках на этом месте, хотя название города было изменено на «Арете». «Парфянка» (2011) – первый роман в серии «Парфянские хроники» Питера Дармана. Главным вымышленным персонажем этих хроник является Пакор I, король Дура-Европоса (хотя имя Пакор было широко распространено в Парфянской империи), современник мятежного римского гладиатора Спартака, который входил в его армию, прежде чем был освобожден в Италии и вернулся домой, в Парфию, где стал самым грозным воином империи. На обложке первого издания романа Агаты Кристи «Убийство в Месопотамии» 1936 года изображен вид с высокого обрыва в Дуре. Кристи, ее муж Макс Маллован и Робин Холлидей Маккартни, автор обложки, посетили Дура-Европос 8 ноября 1934 года.