Квадраттық сан денелер және олардың қасиеттері

Field (mathematics) generated by the square root of an integer
In algebraic number theory, a quadratic field is an algebraic number field of degree two over , the rational numbers. Every such quadratic field is some where is a (uniquely defined) square free integer different from and If , the corresponding quadratic field is called a real quadratic field, and, if , it is called an imaginary quadratic field or a complex quadratic field, corresponding to whether or not it is a subfield of the field of the real numbers. Quadratic fields have been studied in great depth, initially as part of the theory of binary quadratic forms. There remain some unsolved problems. The class number problem is particularly important.

For a nonzero square free integer , the discriminant of the quadratic field is if is congruent to modulo , and otherwise For example, if is , then is the field of Gaussian rationals and the discriminant is The reason for such a distinction is that the ring of integers of is generated by in the first case and by in the second case. The set of discriminants of quadratic fields is exactly the set of fundamental discriminants.

Any prime number gives rise to an ideal in the ring of integers of a quadratic field In line with general theory of splitting of prime ideals in Galois extensions, this may be

is inert is a prime ideal. The quotient ring is the finite field with elements: splits is a product of two distinct prime ideals of The quotient ring is the product is ramified is the square of a prime ideal of The quotient ring contains non zero nilpotent elements. The third case happens if and only if divides the discriminant The first and second cases occur when the Kronecker symbol equals and , respectively. For example, if is an odd prime not dividing , then splits if and only if is congruent to a square modulo The first two cases are, in a certain sense, equally likely to occur as runs through the primes—see Chebotarev density theorem. The law of quadratic reciprocity implies that the splitting behaviour of a prime in a quadratic field depends only on modulo , where is the field discriminant.

A classical example of the construction of a quadratic field is to take the unique quadratic field inside the cyclotomic field generated by a primitive th root of unity, with an odd prime number. The uniqueness is a consequence of Galois theory, there being a unique subgroup of index in the Galois group over As explained at Gaussian period, the discriminant of the quadratic field is for and for This can also be predicted from enough ramification theory. In fact, is the only prime that ramifies in the cyclotomic field, so is the only prime that can divide the quadratic field discriminant. That rules out the 'other' discriminants and in the respective cases.

If one takes the other cyclotomic fields, they have Galois groups with extra torsion, so contain at least three quadratic fields. In general a quadratic field of field discriminant can be obtained as a subfield of a cyclotomic field of th roots of unity. This expresses the fact that the conductor of a quadratic field is the absolute value of its discriminant, a special case of the conductor discriminant formula.

The following table shows some orders of small discriminant of quadratic fields. The maximal order of an algebraic number field is its ring of integers, and the discriminant of the maximal order is the discriminant of the field. The discriminant of a non maximal order is the product of the discriminant of the corresponding maximal order by the square of the determinant of the matrix that expresses a basis of the non maximal order over a basis of the maximal order. All these discriminants may be defined by the formula of
For real quadratic integer rings, the ideal class number, which measures the failure of unique factorization, is given in OEIS A003649; for the imaginary case, they are given in OEIS A000924. Order Discriminant Class number Units Comments Ideal classes , Principal ideal domain, not Euclidean Non maximal order Ideal classes , Non maximal order Euclidean Euclidean Kleinian integers (cyclic of order )Gaussian integers Eisenstein integers Class group non cyclic: (norm ) (norm ) (norm ) (norm ) (norm ) (norm )Non maximal order

Some of these examples are listed in Artin, Algebra (2nd ed. ), §13.8.