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Prehistoric human skull cap from Italy

Ceprano Man, Argil, and Ceprano Calvarium, is a Middle Pleistocene archaic human fossil, a single skull cap (calvarium), accidentally unearthed in a highway construction project in 1994 near Ceprano in the Province of Frosinone, Italy. It was initially considered Homo cepranensis, Homo erectus, or possibly Homo antecessor; but in recent studies, most regard it either as a form of Homo heidelbergensis sharing affinities with African forms, Mallegni et al. (2003) proposed the introduction of a new human species, dubbed Homo cepranensis, based on the fossil. As the specimen was believed to be around 700 ka, they believed that this specimen and Homo antecessor suggested a wave of dispersals into Europe 0.9 0.8 Ma through Iberia and the Middle East. The most recent belief is that it is associated with Homo heidelbergensis or rhodesiensis, or that it is ancestral to Neanderthals. Taking the circumstances of the recovery of the fossil into account, Ascenzi (2001) noted that "an age between 800 and 900 ka is at present our best chronological estimate" based on "the absence in the sediments containing the cranium of any leucitic remnants of the more recent volcanic activity known in the region . and the presence above the cranium itself of a clear stratigraphic unconformity that marks" After clarification of its geostratigraphic, biostratigraphic and archaeological relation to the well known and nearby Acheulean site of Fontana Ranuccio, dated to 487, Muttoni et al. (2009) suggested that Ceprano is most likely about 450,000 years old. Manzi et al. (2010) agree with this, citing an age of 430 and 385 ka. Segre and Mallegni (2012) strongly retain their beliefs that the skull is 900 800 ka and is not the same age as the clay it was found in situ. Di Vincenzo et al. (2017) explain that this thought process is based on the belief of secondary deposition into younger strata, though they believe otherwise based on renewed analysis and context of the find. They note that a lack of gnawing, weathering or abrasions induced by transport supports the theory that the skull was buried once by rising and falling water levels, which is evidenced by the pedofeatures of the clay it was found in situ. This would have dispersed the remaining skeleton and rapidly filled the cranium for fossilization.

The reconstruction of the skull made in 2000 by Clarke and tweaked by M. A. de Lumley and Mallegni features repositioning of the parietal, removal of dental plaster, midsagittal plane was established, added two zygomatic frontal processus previously missing, added an occipital fragment, and rid of unnecessary plaster and glue reinforcements. DI Vincenzo et al. (2017) provided a virtual reconstruction wherein all plaster and glue was removed and the remains were repositioned to most closely fit their life position. They noticed misplacement and misalignment in the temporo parietal region, left mastoid process, and occipital squama, and worked to correct some taphonomic distortion through retrodeformation and other methods. Most of this work is reflected in the vault rather than the face, and most of the peculiar aspects of the skull are now gone. For example, the single autapomorphy used to distinguish it as a new, valid species is a foreshortened vault, which when compared to the new reconstruction, appears typical of H. heidelbergensis.

Ascenzi et al. (1996) argue that the similarity to Chinese H. erectus and assignment to Homo heidelbergensis based on provenance (as Mauer cannot be compared to Ceprano) cannot justify attribution to any other species. Ascenzi and Segre (1997) compared an early cranial reconstruction with the Gran Dolina fossils and concluded that it was "late Homo erectus", being one of the latest occurrences of the species and earliest Italian hominin. This allocation was supported by them with vault profile data and metrics. However, Ascenzi and Segre also consider specimens such as Montmaurin, Arago, Petralona and Vertesszolos as H. erectus or a similar taxon. They suggested that Tighenif No. 3 mandible is a good fit for the skull, and hinted that connection between it and North Africa may be evident. Ascenzi et al. (2000) followed the cranial reconstruction by Clarke (2000) and modifications by M. A. de Lumley to reinforce assignment to H. erectus based on the tori, cranial capacity, bone thickness, and occipital profile angle. Mounier et al. (2011) have identified the fossil as "an appropriate ancestral stock of [H. heidelbergensis] . preceding the appearance of regional autapomorphic features." They suggested that the specimen could be "an appropriate 'counterpart'" to the current, inadequate holotype due to its preservation and morphology. They also suggest ancestry with Neanderthals. Segre and Mallegni (2012) retain use of Homo cepranensis and dispute redating of the site. Manzi (2016) suggested that the species Homo heidelbergensis is the best descriptor for the calvaria, and further proposed two modes of classification. One uses a single species under that name with Ceprano being having ancestral characters, but noticed that subspecific distinctions may be made. The second incorporates this, using the following: H. h. heidelbergensis (Ceprano, Mauer, Arago, ?Hexian, Melka Kunture 2–3), daliensis (Dali, Denisova, Jinniushan, Narmada), rhodesiensis (Broken Hill, Irhoud, Florisbad, Eliye Springs, Ngaloba, Omo Kibish II), and steinheimensis (Steinheim, Petralona, Reilingen, Swanscombe, Sima). Di Vincenzo et al. (2017) found with their new reconstruction that it is typical of H. heidelbergensis, specifically Broken Hill and Petralona. They suggest that it is ancestral to the neanderthalensis sapiens Denisovan clade.) and retained plesiomorphic traits for an extended duration. This suite of old traits gave rise to the MP hominin diversity observed, but was absorbed. Manzi, again, recommends H. h. heidelbergensis for the specimen. The description of the Harbin skull suggests that it is associated specifically with H. rhodesiensis. Roksandic et al. (2022) considered it for inclusion in their Homo bodoensis, but this term was agreed to be valueless and does not comply with ICZN naming conventions. They suggest that it may have contributed to Arago and Petralona, among other specimens.

Lithics at Ceprano tend to be located higher up and in volcanic sediment. Choppers are more common than lithics at the Castro dei Volschi facie, and overlie the choppers found at Arce Fontana Liri. They are 458 385 ka (as low as 200 ka) in age, which was, at the time, much younger than the cranium. It lived during the MIS 11, a warm stage at Lirino Lake, which was a refugium for archaic morphologies. It was buried once in a perilacustrine environment by rising and lowering water, scattering the skeleton and filling the cranium.