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Discipline of figure skating

Pair skating is a figure skating discipline defined by the International Skating Union (ISU) as "the skating of two persons in unison who perform their movements in such harmony with each other as to give the impression of genuine Pair Skating as compared with independent Single Skating". The ISU also states that a pairs team consists of "one Woman and one Man". It also should contain "especially typical Pair Skating moves" such as pair spins, lifts, partner assisted jumps, spirals and other linking movements. Its duration, like the other disciplines, is four minutes for senior teams, and three and one half minutes for junior teams. Pair skating required elements include lifts, twist lifts, throw jumps, jumps, spin combinations, death spirals, step sequences, and choreographic sequences. The elements performed by pairs teams must be "linked together by connecting steps of a different nature"

The roots of pairs skating, like ice dance, is in the "combined skating" developed in the 19th century by skating clubs and organizations and by recreational social skating between couples and friends, who would skate waltzes, marches, and other social dances together. According to writer Ellyn Kestnbaum, the rising popularity of skating during the 19th century led to the development of figure skating techniques, especially the "various forms of hand in hand skating that would become the basis of pair skating". Kestnbaum believes that there is no technical reason why pair skating moves could not be performed by opposite sexes because the moves emphasize the symmetry and similarity of the two bodies making them. Kestnbaum also states that men developed the original concepts of combined skating because most advanced skating was done by adult males. When women became more involved in the sport, they were allowed to compete in "similar pairs" competitions in the U. S.

Figure skating historian James R. Hines reports that factors, such as hand in hand skating and "the crazelike fascination with ice dancing" in the mid 1890s, contributed to the development of pair skating. Madge Syers, the first female figure skater to compete and win internationally, states that from the beginning of the introduction of pair skating in international competitions, it was a popular sport for audiences to watch, and that "if the pair are well matched and clever performers, it is undoubtedly the most attractive to watch". When women began to compete in figure skating in the early 1900s, married couples developed routines together and provided female partners with the opportunities to demonstrate parity with their male partners by executing the same moves. Syers states that Viennese skaters were responsible for pair skating's popularity at the beginning of the 20th century and credited the Austrians for adding dance moves to pair skating. Also in the 1890s, combined and hand in hand skating moved skating away from "the static confines of basic figures to continuous movement around a rink". Hines insists that the popularity of skating waltzes, which depended upon the speed and flow across the ice of couples in dance positions and not just on holding hands with a partner, "dealt a death knell to hand in hand skating".

Pair skating, along with men's and women's single skating, has been an Olympic discipline since figure skating, the oldest Winter Olympic sport, was introduced at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London. The ISU World Figure Skating Championships introduced pair skating, along with women's singles, also in 1908. Hübler and Burger were the first Olympic gold medalists in pair skating in 1908; they also won the 1908 and 1910 World Championships. In 1936, Maxi Herber and Ernst Baier won the gold medal at the Olympics and went on to win the World Championships from 1936 to 1939. The first pair skating national competitions in Canada occurred in 1905 and the first time pair skating was included during a U. S. Championships was in 1914, but there are only a few descriptions of pair skating in North America before World War I. Side by side skating, also called shadow skating, in which partners executed the same movements and steps in unison, were emphasized in the early 1920s. Pair skating became more athletic in the 1930s; partners executed "a balanced blend of shadow skating coupled with increasingly spectacular pair moves, including spins, death spirals, and lifts". Hines credits German pair skaters Maxi Herber and Ernst Baier and French team Andrée Brunet and Pierre Brunet with developing athletic elements and programs that included pair spins, side by side spins, lifts, throw jumps, side by side jumps, and side by side footwork sequences. By the 1930s, pair skating had advanced; Hines states, "It was not yet viewed equally with singles skating, at least from a technically standpoint, but it had grown to be a much appreciated discipline". Hines also reports that many single skaters during the era also competed in pair skating. Soviet and Russian domination in pair skating began in the 1950s and continued throughout the rest of the 1900s. Only five non Soviet or Russian teams won the World Championships after 1965, until 2010. Soviet pair teams won gold medals in seven consecutive Olympics, from 1964 in Innsbruck to 1988 in Calgary. Kestnbaum credits the Soviets for emphasizing ballet, theater, and folk dance in all disciplines of figure skating, noting the influence of Soviet pair team and married couple Liudmila Belousova and Oleg Protopopov. The Protopopovs, as they were called, won gold medals at the 1964 and 1968 Olympics, as well as the 1968 World Championships, "raised by several degrees the level of translating classical dance to the ice". Hines reports that the Protopopovs represented a new style of pair skating developed during the 1960s. He states, "A more flowing style presented by the Russians was replacing an older, more disconnected style". The Protopopovs, like single skaters Sonja Henie in the 1930s and Dick Button in the 1940s, while winning multiple Olympic medals, "altered dramatically the direction of figure skating", and marked the beginning of the Soviet domination of pair skating for the rest of the 20th century. Irina Rodnina, with her partner Alexei Ulanov and later Alexander Zaitsev, also from the Soviet Union, dominated pair skating throughout the 1970s and "led the trend of female pair skaters as risk taking athletes". With Ulanov, Rodnina won World and European titles for four years in a row and an Olympic gold medal in 1972. Hines reports that Rodnina and her second partner, Zaitsev, won the 1973 European Championships and were "never seriously challenged" between 1974 and 1978, winning gold medals at the 1976 Olympics and at every World and European Championships during that period. They also won gold medals at the 1980 European Championships and at the Olympics that same year. Hines states, about Rodnina and her partners, that they "transformed pair skating through expanded and inspired athleticism".

Pair skating, which has never included a compulsory phase like the other figure skating disciplines, did not require a short program until the early 1960s, when the ISU "instituted a short program of required moves" as the first part of pair competitions. Hines reports that the change was due "to a few controversial decisions in the 1950s and the discipline's increasing technical complexities". In 1964, at the European Championships in Grenoble, France and the 1964 World Championships in Dortmund, West Germany, and during the Olympics in 1968, a two and a half minute long technical program was added, later called the short program, which constituted one third of a team's scores. The arrangement of the specific moves, also unlike compulsory figures for single skaters and the compulsory dance for ice dancers, were up to each pair team. The short programs introduced in single men and women competitions in 1973 were modeled after the pair skating short program, and the structure of competitions in both single and pair competitions have been identical since the elimination of compulsory figures in 1990. A judging scandal at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah "ushered in sweeping reforms in the scoring system" of figure skating competitions. The scandal, which centered around Canadian pair team Jamie Sale and David Pelletier and Russian pair team Elena Berezhnaya and Anton Sikharulidze, brought about the end of the 6.0 scoring system and the implementation of the ISU Judging System, starting in 2004. According to Caroline Silby, a consultant with U. S. Figure Skating, pair teams, as well as ice dance teams, have the added challenge of strengthening partnerships and ensuring that teams stay together for several years. Silby states, "Conflict between partners that is consistent and unresolved can often lead to the early demise or break up of a team". Challenges for both pairs and dancers, which can make conflict resolution and communication difficult, include: the fewer number of available boys for girls to find partnerships; different priorities regarding commitment and scheduling; differences in partners' ages and developmental stages; differences in family situations; the common necessity of one or both partners moving to train at a new facility; and different skill levels when the partnership is formed. Silby estimates that due to the lack of effective communication among pair teams, there is a "six fold increase in the risk of national level figure skating teams splitting". Teams with strong skills in communication and conflict resolution, however, tend to produce "highest placing finishers at national championship events".

The short program is the first segment of single skating, pair skating, and synchronized skating in international competitions, including all ISU championships, the Olympic Winter Games, the Winter Youth Games, qualifying competitions for the Olympic Winter Games, and ISU Grand Prix events for both junior and senior level skaters (including the finals). The short program must be skated before the free skate, the second component in competitions. The short program lasts, for both senior and junior pair skaters, two minutes and 40 seconds. Vocal music with lyrics has been allowed in pair skating and in all disciplines since the 2014–2015 season. Both junior and senior pair skaters have seven required elements: a lift, a twist lift, a throw jump, a jump; a solo spin combination, a death spiral, and a step sequence. The sequence of the elements is optional. Like single skaters, the short programs of pair teams must be skated in harmony with the music, which they choose. The short program for pair skating was introduced at the 1963 European Championships, the 1964 World Championships, and the Olympics in 1968; previously, pair skaters only had to perform the free skating program in competitions. Wenjing Sui and Cong Han from China hold the highest pair skating short program score of 84.41 points, which they earned at the 2022 Olympic Winter Games.

According to the ISU, free skating for pairs "consists of a well balanced program composed and skated to music of the pair's own choice for a specified period of time". The ISU also considers a well done free skate one that contains both single skating moves performed either in parallel (called "shadow skating") or symmetrically (called "mirror skating"). It also should contain "especially typical Pair Skating moves" such as pair spins, lifts, partner assisted jumps, spirals linked harmoniously by steps and other movements.

Pair skating required elements include pair lifts, twist lifts, throw jumps, jumps, spin combinations, death spirals, step sequences, and choreographic sequences. The elements performed by pair teams must be "linked together by connecting steps of a different nature" The ISU published a judges' handbook describing what judges needed to look for during pair skating competitions in 1966.

There are five groups of pair skating lifts, categorized in order of increasing level of difficulty, and determined by the hold at the moment the woman passes the man's shoulder. Judges look for the following when evaluating pair lifts: speed of entry and exit; control of the woman's free leg when she is exiting out of the lift, with the goal of keeping the leg high and sweeping; the position of the woman in the air; the man's footwork; quick and easy changes of position; and the maintenance of flow throughout the lift. Judges begin counting how many revolutions pair teams execute from the moment when the woman leaves the ice until when the man's arm (or arms) begin to bend after he has made a full extension and the woman begins to descend. A complete pair skating lift must include full extension of the lifting arm or arms, if required for the type of lift being performed. Small lifts, or ones in which the man does not raise his hands higher than his shoulders, or lifts that include movements in which the man holds the woman by the legs, are also allowed. The man must complete at least one revolution. The woman can perform both a simple take off and a difficult take off. A difficult take off can include, but is not limited to, the following: a somersault take off; a one hand take off; an Ina Bauer; a spread eagle; spirals as the entry curve executed by one or both partners; or a dance lift followed immediately by a pair lift take off. Difficult landings include, but are not limited to, the following: somersaults; one hand landings; variations in holds; and spread eagle positions of the man during dismounting. Carry lifts are defined as "the simple carrying of a partner without rotation" are allowed; they do not count as overhead lifts, but are considered as transition elements. A lift is judged illegal if it is accomplished with a wrong hold. The only times pair skating partners can give each other assistance in executing lifts are "through hand to hand, hand to arm, hand to body and hand to upper part of the leg (above the knee) grips". They earn more points if the execution of the woman's position and the change in hold are "significantly different from lift to lift". There are three types of positions performed by the woman: upright, or when her upper body is vertical; the star, or when she faces sideways with her upper body parallel to the ice; and the platter, or when her position is flat and facing up or down with her upper body parallel to the ice. The lifts ends when the man's arm or arms begins to bend after he completes a full extension and when the woman begins to descend. The first quadruple twist lift performed in international competition was by Russian pair team Marina Cherkasova and Sergei Shakhrai at the European Championship in 1977.

Pair teams, both juniors and seniors, must perform one solo jump during their short programs; it can include a double flip or double Axel for juniors, or any kind of double or triple jump for seniors. In the free skate, both juniors and seniors must perform only one solo jump and only one jump combination or sequence. A jump sequence consists of two jumps, with no limitations on the number of revolutions per jump. It starts with any type of jump, immediately followed by an Axel type jump. Skaters must, during a jump combination, make sure that they land on the same foot they took off on, and that they execute a full rotation on the ice between the jumps. They can, however, execute an Euler between the two jumps. When the Euler is performed separately, it is considered a non listed jump. Junior pairs, during their short programs, earn no points for the solo jump if they perform a different jump than what is required. Both junior and senior pairs earn no points if, during their free skating programs, they repeat a jump with over two revolutions. All jumps are considered in the order in which they were performed. If the partners do not execute the same number of revolutions during a solo jump or part of a jump sequence or combination (which can consist of two or three jumps), only the jump with the fewer revolutions will be counted in their score. The double Axel and all triple and quadruple jumps, which have more than two revolutions, must be different from one another, although jump sequences and combinations can include the same two jumps. Extra jumps that do not fulfill the requirements are not counted in the team's score. Teams are allowed, however, to execute the same two jumps during a jump combination or sequence. If they perform any or both jump or jumps incorrectly, only the incorrectly done jump is not counted and it is not considered a jump sequence or combination. Both partners can execute two solo jumps during their short programs, but the second jump is worth less points than the first. If the partners execute a spin and a jump back to back, or vice versa, they are considered separate elements and the team is awarded more points for executing a difficult take off or entry. They lose points if the partners fall or step out of a jump during a jump sequence or combination. Skate Canada says, "the male partner assists the female into flight". The throw jump is also considered an assisted jump, performed by the woman. The man supports the woman, initiates her rotations, and assists her with her height, timing, and direction. The first throw triple Axel jump performed in competition was by American pair team Rena Inoue and John Baldwin Jr. at the 2006 U. S. Championships. They also performed it at the Four Continents Championships in 2006 and the 2006 Winter Olympics. The throw triple Axel is a difficult throw to accomplish because the woman must perform three and one half revolutions after being thrown by the man, a half revolution more than other triple jumps, and because it requires a forward take off.

The solo spin combination must be performed once during the short program of pair skating competitions, with at least two revolutions in two basic positions. Both partners must include all three basic positions in order to earn the full points possible. There must be a minimum of five revolutions made on each foot. Spins can be commenced with jumps and must have at least two different basic positions, and both partners must include two revolutions in each position. A solo spin combination must have all three basic positions (the camel spin, the sit spin, and upright positions) performed by both partners, at any time during the spin to receive the full value of points, and must have all three basic positions performed by both partners to receive full value for the element. A spin with less than three revolutions is not counted as a spin; rather, it is considered a skating movement. If a skater changes to a non basic position, it is not considered a change of position. The number of revolutions in non basic positions, which may be considered difficult variations, are counted towards the team's total number of revolutions. Only positions, whether basic or non basic, must be performed by the partners at the same time. Pair teams earn more points for performing difficult entrances and exits. including a flying entrance by one or both partners; it can include the spin's beginning phase.

Both junior and senior pair teams must perform one pair spin combination, which may begin with a fly spin, during their free skating programs. Pair spin combinations must have at least eight revolutions, which must be counted from "the entry of the spin until its exit". If spins are done with less than two revolutions, pairs receive zero points; if they have less than three revolutions, they are considered a skating movement, not a spin. Pair teams cannot, except for a short step when changing directions, stop while performing a rotation. Both partners must execute at least one change of position and one change of foot (although not necessarily done simultaneously); if not, the element will have no value. Like the solo spin combination, the spin combination has three basic positions: the camel spin, the sit spin, and the upright spin. Also like the solo spin combination, changes to a non basic position is counted towards the team's total number of revolutions and are not considered a change of position. A change of foot must have at least three revolutions, before and after the change, and can be any basic or non basic position, in order for the element to be counted. The woman is allowed to be lifted from the ice during the spin, but her partner must stay on one foot, and the revolutions they execute while in the air counts towards the total number of revolutions. The ISU states that this does not increase the difficulty of a combination spin, but it does allow for creativity. According to Skate Canada, the forward inside death spiral is the easiest one to execute, and the forward outside death spiral is the most difficult. If a different death spiral other than what has been prescribed is executed, it receives no points. One death spiral is required for juniors and seniors during their free skate. The step sequence must be "visible and identifiable", They must not separate, with no breaks, for at least half of the sequence. Changes of holds, which can include "a brief moment" when the partners do not touch, are permitted during the step sequence. The workload between the partners must be even to help them earn more points. More points are rewarded to teams when they change places or holds, or when they perform difficult skating moves together. Two combinations of difficult turns are the same if they consist of the same turns performed in the same order, on the same foot and on the same edges. According to the ISU, a choreographic sequence "consists of at least two different movements like steps, turns, spirals, arabesques, spread eagles, Ina Bauers, hydroblading, any jumps with maximum of 2 revolutions, spins, etc.". Pair skating teams can use steps and turns to connect the two or more movements together. Pair skaters, in order to earn the most points possible, must include the following in their choreographic sequences: they must have originality and creativity; the sequence must match the music and reflect the program's concept and character; and they must demonstrate effortlessness of the element as a sequence. They must also do the following: "have good ice coverage" or perform an interesting pattern; demonstrate good unison between the partners; and demonstrate "excellent commitment" and control of the whole body.

Skaters must only execute the prescribed elements; if they do not, the extra or unprescribed elements will not be counted in their score. Only the first attempt of an element will be included. Violations in pair skating include falls, time, music, and clothing.

According to the ISU, a fall is defined as the "loss of control by a Skater with the result that the majority of his/her own body weight is on the ice supported by any other part of the body other than the blades; e. g. hand(s), knee(s), back, buttock(s) or any part of the arm". For pair skaters, one point is deducted for every fall by one partner, and two points are deducted for every fall by both partners. According to former American figure skater Katrina Hacker, falls associated with jumps occur for the following reasons: the skater makes an error during their takeoff; their jump is under rotated, or not fully rotated while they are in the air; they execute a tilted jump and is unable to land upright on their feet; and they make an error during the first jump of a combination jump, resulting in not having enough smoothness, speed, and flow to complete the second jump.

As for all skating disciplines, judges penalize pair skaters one point up to every five seconds for ending their programs too early or too late. If they start their programs between one and 30 seconds late, they can lose one point. Restrictions for finishing the short program and the free skating program are similar to the requirements of the other disciplines in figure skating. Pair teams can complete these programs within plus or minus 10 seconds of the required times; if they cannot, judges can deduct points if they finish up to five seconds too early or too late. If they begin skating any element after their required time (plus the required 10 seconds they have to begin), they earn no points for those elements. The pair team receive no points if the duration of their program is completed less than 30 seconds or more seconds early. Judges take the following things into account when scoring the short program and the free skating program: the steps and movement in time to the music; the expression of the character of the music; and the use of finesse. Efn|"Finesse" is defined as "the Skater's refined, artful manipulation of music details and nuances through movement".

"Communication No. 2403: Summary of Results of Mail Voting on Proposals in Replacement of the 58th Ordinary Congress 2021". Lausanne, Switzerland: International Skating Union. 30 June 2021. Retrieved 17 July 2021 (ISU No. 2403). "Special Regulations & Technical Rules Single & Pair Skating and Ice Dance 2021". International Skating Union. June 2021. Retrieved 15 July 2022 (S&P/ID 2021). "ISU Judging System: Technical Panel Handbook: Pair Skating 2021/2022" (PDF). International Skating Union. 8 July 2021. Retrieved 16 July 2022 (Tech Panel).