Ғарыштық фонды зерттеуші: COBE спутнигі

NASA satellite of the Explorer program

The Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE '/k//oʊ//b//i/ KOHbee), also referred to as Explorer 66, was a NASA satellite dedicated to cosmology, which operated from 1989 to 1993. Its goals were to investigate the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB or CMBR) of the universe and provide measurements that would help shape our understanding of the cosmos. COBE's measurements provided two key pieces of evidence that supported the Big Bang theory of the universe: that the CMB has a near perfect black body spectrum, and that it has very faint anisotropies. Two of COBE's principal investigators, George F. Smoot and John C. Mather, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2006 for their work on the project. According to the Nobel Prize committee, "the COBE project can also be regarded as the starting point for cosmology as a precision science". COBE was the second cosmic microwave background satellite, following RELIKT 1, and was followed by two more advanced spacecraft: the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) operated from 2001 to 2010 and the Planck spacecraft from 2009 to 2013.

The purpose of the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) mission was to take precise measurements of the diffuse radiation between 1 micrometre and over the whole celestial sphere. The following quantities were measured: (1) the spectrum of the 3 K radiation over the range 100 micrometres to (2) the anisotropy of this radiation from 3 to ; and, (3) the spectrum and angular distribution of diffuse infrared background radiation at wavelengths from 1 to 300 micrometres.

In 1974, NASA issued an Announcement of Opportunity for astronomical missions that would use a small or medium sized Explorer spacecraft. Out of the 121 proposals received, three dealt with studying the cosmological background radiation. Though these proposals lost out to the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), their strength made NASA further explore the idea. In 1976, NASA formed a committee of members from each of 1974's three proposal teams to put together their ideas for such a satellite. A year later, this committee suggested a polar orbiting satellite called COBE to be launched by either a Delta 5920 8 launch vehicle or the Space Shuttle. It would contain the following instruments:

The experiment module contained the instruments and a dewar filled with of 1.6 K liquid helium, with a conical Sun shade. The base module contained the attitude control, communications and power systems. The satellite rotated at 1 rpm about the axis of symmetry to control systematic errors in the anisotropy measurements and to allow observations of the zodiacal light at various solar elongation angles. The orientation of the spin axis was maintained anti Earth and at 94° to the Sun Earth line. The operational orbit was dawn dusk Sun synchronous so that the Sun was always to the side and thus was shielded from the instruments. With this orbit and spin axis orientation, the instruments performed a complete scan of the celestial sphere every six months. Instrument operations were terminated on 23 December 1993. As of January 1994, engineering operations were to conclude that month, after which operation of the spacecraft would be transferred to Wallops Flight Facility (WFF) for use as a test satellite.

The Diffuse Infrared Background Experiment (DIRBE) consists of a cryogenically cooled (to 2 K) multiband radiometer used to investigate diffuse infrared radiation from 1 to 300 micrometres. The instrument measures the absolute flux in 10 wavelength bands with a 1° field of view pointed 30° off the spin axis. Detectors (photoconductors) and filters for the 8 to 100 micrometre channels are the same as for the IRAS mission. Bolometers are used for the longest wavelength channel (120 to 300 micrometres). The DIRBE sensitivity will be better than 2E 12 W/(cm2 sr) in channels 1 to 3. Channels 4 to 8 will reach 6E 13 while channels 9 and 10, with their less sensitive bolometers but larger etendue, will reach 4E 12. These limits are achievable with existing detectors cooled to near the cryostat temperature of 1.6 K. The telescope is a well baffled, off axis, Gregorian flux collector with re imaging. The instrument weighs approximately , uses 100 W and has a data rate of 1700 bit/s.

The Far Infrared Absolute Spectrophotometer (FIRAS) is a cryogenically cooled polarizing Michelson interferometer used as a Fourier transform spectrometer. The instrument points along the spin axis and has a 7° field of view. This device measures the spectrum to a precision of 1/1000 of the peak flux at for each 7° field of view on the sky (over the range 0.1 to ). The FIRAS uses a special flared trumpet horn flux collector having very low sidelobe levels and an external calibrator covering the entire beam; precise temperature regulation and calibration are required. The instrument has a differential input to compare the sky with an internal reference at 3 K. This feature provides immunity from systematic errors in the spectrometer, and contributes significantly to the ability to detect small deviations from a blackbody spectrum. The instrument weighs , uses 84 watts and has a data rate of 1200 bit/s.

+Instruments Instrument Acronym Description Principal Investigator Differential Microwave Radiometer DMR Microwave instrument that would map variations (or anisotropies) in the Cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation George F. Smoot Diffuse Infrared Background Experiment DIRBE Multiwavelength infrared detector used to map dust emission Mike Hauser Far InfraRed Absolute Spectrophotometer FIRAS Spectrophotometer used to measure the spectrum of the CMB John C. Mather

NASA accepted the proposal provided that the costs be kept under US$30 million, excluding launcher and data analysis. Due to cost overruns in the Explorer program due to IRAS, work on constructing the satellite at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) did not begin until 1981. To save costs, the infrared detectors and liquid helium dewar on COBE would be similar to those used on Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS). COBE was originally planned to be launched on a Space Shuttle mission STS 82 B in 1988 from Vandenberg Air Force Base, but the Challenger explosion delayed this plan when the Shuttles were grounded. NASA prevented COBE's engineers from going to other space companies to launch COBE, and eventually a redesigned COBE was placed into Sun synchronous orbit on 18 November 1989 aboard a Delta launch vehicle. On 23 April 1992, COBE scientists announced at the APS April Meeting in Washington, D. C. the finding of the "primordial seeds" (CMBE anisotropy) in data from the DMR instrument; until then the other instruments were "unable to see the template." The following day The New York Times ran the story on the front page, explaining the finding as "the first evidence revealing how an initially smooth cosmos evolved into today's panorama of stars, galaxies and gigantic clusters of galaxies." The Nobel Prize in Physics for 2006 was jointly awarded to John C. Mather, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, and George F. Smoot, University of California, Berkeley, "for their discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation".

COBE was an Explorer class satellite, with technology borrowed heavily from IRAS, but with some unique characteristics. The need to control and measure all the sources of systematic errors required a rigorous and integrated design. COBE would have to operate for a minimum of 6 months, and constrain the amount of radio interference from the ground, COBE and other satellites as well as radiative interference from the Earth, Sun and Moon. The instruments required temperature stability and to maintain gain, and a high level of cleanliness to reduce entry of stray light and thermal emission from particulates. The need to control systematic error in the measurement of the CMB anisotropy and measuring the zodiacal cloud at different elongation angles for subsequent modeling required that the satellite rotate at a 0.8 rpm spin rate. in agreement with later measurements made by the BOOMERanG experiment. However, a number of other experiments attempted to duplicate their results and were unable to do so. In a sounding rocket experiment, they detected an excess brightness at 0.5 and wavelengths. With these developments serving as a backdrop to COBE's mission, scientists eagerly awaited results from FIRAS. The results of FIRAS were startling in that they showed a perfect fit of the CMB and the theoretical curve for a black body at a temperature of 2.7 K, thus proving the Berkeley Nagoya results erroneous. FIRAS measurements were made by measuring the spectral difference between a 7° patch of the sky against an internal black body. The interferometer in FIRAS covered between 2 and 95 cm−1 in two bands separated at 20 cm−1. There are two scan lengths (short and long) and two scan speeds (fast and slow) for a total of four different scan modes. The data were collected over a ten month period.

The DMR was able to spend four years mapping the detectable anisotropy of cosmic background radiation as it was the only instrument not dependent on the dewar's supply of helium to keep it cooled. This operation was able to create full sky maps of the CMB by subtracting out galactic emissions and dipole at various frequencies. The cosmic microwave background fluctuations are extremely faint, only one part in 100,000 compared to the 2.73 K average temperature of the radiation field. The cosmic microwave background radiation is a remnant of the Big Bang and the fluctuations are the imprint of density contrast in the early universe. The density ripples are believed to have produced structure formation as observed in the universe today: clusters of galaxies and vast regions devoid of galaxies.

DIRBE also detected 10 new far IR emitting galaxies in the region not surveyed by IRAS as well as nine other candidates in the weak far IR that may be spiral galaxies. Galaxies that were detected at the 140 and 240 μm were also able to provide information on very cold dust (VCD). At these wavelengths, the mass and temperature of VCD can be derived. When these data were joined with 60 and 100 μm data taken from IRAS, it was found that the far infrared luminosity arises from cold (≈17–22 K) dust associated with diffuse H I region cirrus clouds, 15 30% from cold (≈19 K) dust associated with molecular gas, and less than 10% from warm (≈29 K) dust in the extended low density H II regions.

On top of the findings DIRBE had on galaxies, it also made two other significant contributions to science. The second contribution DIRBE made was a model of the Galactic disk as seen edge on from our position. According to the model, if the Sun is 8.6 kpc from the Galactic Center, then it is 15.6% above the midplane of the disk, which has a radial and vertical scale lengths of 2.64 and 0.333 kpc, respectively, and is warped in a way consistent with the HI layer. There is also no indication of a thick disk. To create this model, the IPD had to be subtracted out of the DIRBE data. It was found that this cloud, which as seen from Earth is Zodiacal light, was not centered on the Sun, as previously thought, but on a place in space a few million kilometers away. This is due to the gravitation influence of Saturn and Jupiter. By looking at the results from DIRBE and FIRAS in the 140 to 5000 μm we can detect that the integrated EBL intensity is ≈16 nW/(m2·sr). This is consistent with the energy released during nucleosynthesis and constitutes about 20–50% of the total energy released in the formation of helium and metals throughout the history of the universe. Attributed only to nuclear sources, this intensity implies that more than 5–15% of the baryonic mass density implied by big bang nucleosynthesis analysis has been processed in stars to helium and heavier elements.