Введение
Вид дерева, выращиваемого для получения какао-бобов.
Speciesbox
|image = Matadecacao. jpg
|image caption = Cacao fruits on the tree
|genus = Theobroma
|species = cacao
|authority = L.
|synonyms = *Cacao minaGaertn. Cacao minus Gaertn. Cacao sativa Aubl. Cacao theobroma Tussac Theobroma cacao f. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Ducke Theobroma cacao subsp. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Cuatrec. Theobroma cacao var. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Cif. Theobroma cacao subsp. sativa (Aubl.) LeónTheobroma cacao var. typica Cif. Theobroma caribaea Sweet Theobroma integerrima Stokes Theobroma kalagua De Wild. Theobroma leiocarpum Bernoulli Theobroma pentagonum BernoulliTheobroma saltzmanniana BernoulliTheobroma sapidum Pittier Theobroma sativa (Aubl.) Lign. & Le Bey Theobroma sativa var. leucosperma A. Chev. Theobroma sativa var. melanosperma A. Chev. Theobroma sativum (Aubl.) Lign. & Bey
|synonyms ref =
Theobroma cacao (cacao tree or cocoa tree) is a small ( tall) evergreen tree in the family Malvaceae. Its seeds, cocoa beans, are used to make chocolate liquor, cocoa solids, cocoa butter and chocolate. Native to the tropics of the Americas, the largest producer of cocoa beans in 2018 was Ivory Coast, at 2.2 million tons. Its leaves are alternate, entire, unlobed, long and broad. Description
Flowers
The flowers are produced in clusters directly on the trunk and older branches; this is known as cauliflory. The flowers are small, diameter, with pink calyx. The floral formula, used to represent the structure of a flower using numbers, is ✶ K5 C5 A(5°+52) (5). While many of the world's flowers are pollinated by bees (Hymenoptera) or butterflies/moths (Lepidoptera), cacao flowers are pollinated by tiny flies, Forcipomyia midges in the subfamily Forcipomyiinae. Using the natural pollinator Forcipomyia midges for Theobroma cacao was shown to have more fruit production than using artificial pollinators. Each seed contains a significant amount of fat (40–50%) as cocoa butter. The fruit's active constituent is the stimulant theobromine, a compound similar to caffeine. Nomenclature
The generic name Theobroma is derived from the Greek for "food of the gods"; from θεός (theos), meaning 'god' or 'divine', and βρῶμα (broma), meaning 'food'. The specific name cacao is the Hispanization of the name given to the plant in indigenous Mesoamerican languages such as kakaw in Tzeltal, Kʼicheʼ and Classic Maya; kagaw in Sayula Popoluca; and cacahuatl in Nahuatl meaning "bean of the cocoa tree". Taxonomy
Cacao (Theobroma cacao) is one of 26 species belonging to the genus Theobroma classified under the subfamily Byttnerioideae of the mallow family Malvaceae. Distribution and domesticationT. cacao is widely distributed from southeastern Mexico to the Amazon basin. There were originally two hypotheses about its domestication; one said that there were two foci for domestication, one in the Lacandon Jungle area of Mexico and another in lowland South America. More recent studies of patterns of DNA diversity, however, suggest that this is not the case. One study This result suggests that this is where T. cacao was originally domesticated, probably for the pulp that surrounds the beans, which is eaten as a snack and fermented into a mildly alcoholic beverage. Using the DNA sequences and comparing them with data derived from climate models and the known conditions suitable for cacao, one study refined the view of domestication, linking the area of greatest cacao genetic diversity to a bean shaped area that encompasses Ecuador, the border between Brazil and Peru and the southern part of the Colombian–Brazilian border. Climate models indicate that at the peak of the last ice age 21,000 years ago, when habitat suitable for cacao was at its most reduced, this area was still suitable, and so provided a refugium for species. Cacao trees grow well as understory plants in humid forest ecosystems. This is equally true of abandoned cultivated trees, making it difficult to distinguish truly wild trees from those whose parents may originally have been cultivated. Currency system
Cacao beans constituted both a ritual beverage and a major currency system in pre Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations. At one point, the Aztec empire received a yearly tribute of 980 loads of cacao, in addition to other goods. Each load represented exactly 8,000 beans. The buying power of quality beans was such that 80–100 beans could buy a new cloth mantle. The use of cacao beans as currency is also known to have spawned counterfeiters during the Aztec empire. Cultivation
In 2016, cocoa beans were cultivated on roughly worldwide. Cocoa beans are grown by large agroindustrial plantations and small producers, the bulk of production coming from millions of farmers with small plots. A tree begins to bear when it is four or five years old. A mature tree may have 6,000 flowers in a year, yet only about 20 pods. About 1,200 seeds (40 pods) are required to produce of cocoa paste. Historically, chocolate makers have recognized three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate: Forastero, Criollo and Trinitario. The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya. Only 10% of chocolate is made from Criollo, which is arguably less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. In November 2000, the cacao beans coming from Chuao were awarded an appellation of origin under the title Cacao de Chuao (from Spanish: 'cacao of Chuao'). The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero group, the main and most ubiquitous variety being the Amenolado variety, while the Arriba variety (such as the Nacional variety) are less commonly found in Forastero produce. Forastero trees are significantly hardier and more disease resistant than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans. Major cocoa bean processors include Hershey's, Nestlé and Mars, all of which purchase cocoa beans via various sources. Chocolate can be made from T. cacao through a process of steps that involve harvesting, fermenting of T. cacao pulp, drying, harvesting, and then extraction. Roasting T. cacao by using superheated steam was found to be better than conventional roasting (use of ovens) because it resulted in same quality of cocoa beans in a shorter amount of time. |}
In 2018, world production of cocoa beans was , led by Ivory Coast with 37% of the total. Other major producers were Ghana (18%) and Indonesia (11%). In an effort to improve the diversity available to breeders, and ensure the future of the field genebanks, experts have drawn up A Global Strategy for the Conservation and Use of Cacao Genetic Resources, as the Foundation for a Sustainable Cocoa Economy. The strategy has been adopted by the cacao producers and their clients, and seeks to improve the characterization of cacao diversity, the sustainability and diversity of the cacao collections, the usefulness of the collections, and to ease access to better information about the conserved material. Some natural areas of cacao diversity are protected by various forms of conservation, for example national parks. However, a recent study of genetic diversity and predicted climates
A specific bacterium Streptomyces camerooniansis was found to be beneficial for T. cacao by helping plant growth by accelerating seed germination of T. cacao, inhibiting growth of various types of microorganisms (such as different oomycetes, fungi, and bacteria), and preventing rotting by Phytophthora megakarya. Pests
Various plant pests and diseases can cause serious problems for cacao production. Insects
Cocoa mirids or capsids worldwide (but especially Sahlbergella singularis and Distantiella theobroma in West Africa and Helopeltis spp. in Southeast Asia)Bathycoelia thalassina West Africa
Conopomorpha cramerella (cocoa pod borer – in Southeast Asia)
Carmenta theobromae C. & S. America
Fungi
Moniliophthora roreri (frosty pod rot)
Moniliophthora perniciosa (witches' broom)
Ceratocystis cacaofunesta (mal de machete) or (Ceratocystis wilt)
Verticillium dahliae
Oncobasidium theobromae (vascular streak dieback)
Oomycetes
Phytophthora spp. (black pod) especially Phytophthora megakarya in West Africa
Viruses
Cacao swollen shoot virus
Mistletoe
Rats and other vertebrate pests (squirrels, woodpeckers, etc.)
Видовая карточка
|image = Matadecacao.jpg
|image caption = Плоды какао на дереве
|genus = Theobroma
|species = cacao
|authority = L.
|synonyms = *Cacao minaGaertn. Cacao minus Gaertn. Cacao sativa Aubl. Cacao theobroma Tussac Theobroma cacao f. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Ducke Theobroma cacao subsp. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Cuatrec. Theobroma cacao var. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Cif. Theobroma cacao subsp. sativa (Aubl.) LeónTheobroma cacao var. typica Cif. Theobroma caribaea Sweet Theobroma integerrima Stokes Theobroma kalagua De Wild. Theobroma leiocarpum Bernoulli Theobroma pentagonum BernoulliTheobroma saltzmanniana BernoulliTheobroma sapidum Pittier Theobroma sativa (Aubl.) Lign. & Le Bey Theobroma sativa var. leucosperma A. Chev. Theobroma sativa var. melanosperma A. Chev. Theobroma sativum (Aubl.) Lign. & Bey
|synonyms ref =
Theobroma cacao (какао-дерево) – небольшое (высокое) вечнозеленое дерево семейства Мальвовые (Malvaceae). Его семена, какао-бобы, используются для производства шоколадного ликера, какао-продуктов, какао-масла и шоколада. Родом из тропиков Америки, крупнейшим производителем какао-бобов в 2018 году была Кот-д’Ивуар – 2,2 миллиона тонн. Листья очередные, цельные, нелопастные, длиной и шириной. Описание
Цветки
Цветки образуются в соцветиях непосредственно на стволе и старых ветвях; это явление известно как каулифлория. Цветки мелкие, диаметром, с розовым цветоложем. Цветочная формула, используемая для обозначения строения цветка числами, – ✶ K5 C5 A(5°+52) (5). В то время как многие цветы в мире опыляются пчелами (Hymenoptera) или бабочками/мотыльками (Lepidoptera), цветы какао опыляются крошечными мухами, комарами-червицами (Forcipomyia) из подсемейства Forcipomyiinae. Использование естественного опылителя – комаров-червиц Forcipomyia – для Theobroma cacao показало более высокую урожайность плодов, чем использование искусственных опылителей. Каждое семя содержит значительное количество жира (40–50%) в виде какао-масла. Активным компонентом плода является стимулятор теобромин, соединение, сходное с кофеином. Номенклатура
Родовое название Theobroma происходит от греческого «пища богов»; от θεός (theos) – «бог» или «божественный», и βρῶμα (broma) – «пища». Видовое название cacao – это испанизированная форма названия растения в языках коренных народов Мезоамерики, например, kakaw в языках тцельталь, киче и классическом майя; kagaw в языке саюла-пополука; и cacahuatl в языке науатль, что означает «боб дерева какао». Таксономия
Какао (Theobroma cacao) – один из 26 видов, относящихся к роду Theobroma, классифицируемых в подсемействе Byttnerioideae семейства Мальвовые (Malvaceae). Распространение и одомашнивание
T. cacao широко распространено от юго-восточной Мексики до бассейна Амазонки. Первоначально существовало две гипотезы об одомашнивании: одна предполагала наличие двух центров одомашнивания – в районе джунглей Лакандон в Мексике и в низменностях Южной Америки. Однако более поздние исследования закономерностей генетического разнообразия показали, что это не так. Одно исследование показало, что именно здесь T. cacao был первоначально одомашнен, вероятно, для мякоти, окружающей бобы, которую едят в качестве закуски и ферментируют в слабоалкогольный напиток. Используя последовательности ДНК и сравнивая их с данными, полученными из климатических моделей и известных условий, подходящих для какао, одно исследование уточнило представление об одомашнивании, связав область наибольшего генетического разнообразия какао с областью в форме боба, охватывающей Эквадор, границу между Бразилией и Перу и южную часть колумбийско-бразильской границы. Климатические модели показывают, что в период пика последнего ледникового периода 21 000 лет назад, когда среда обитания, подходящая для какао, была наиболее сокращена, эта область все еще была пригодной и, следовательно, служила убежищем для вида. Деревья какао хорошо растут как подлесок во влажных лесных экосистемах. Это также справедливо для заброшенных культивируемых деревьев, что затрудняет различие между действительно дикими деревьями и теми, чьи родители могли быть первоначально культивированы. Денежная система
Какао-бобы были одновременно ритуальным напитком и основной денежной системой в доколумбовых цивилизациях Мезоамерики. В какой-то момент империя ацтеков получала ежегодную дань в 980 грузов какао, помимо других товаров. Каждый груз представлял собой ровно 8000 бобов. Покупательная способность качественных бобов была такой, что 80–100 бобов могли купить новое тканевое покрывало. Использование какао-бобов в качестве валюты также привело к появлению фальшивомонетчиков в империи ацтеков. Выращивание
В 2016 году какао-бобы выращивались на площади примерно по всему миру. Какао-бобы выращиваются как на крупных агропромышленных плантациях, так и мелкими производителями, основная часть производства приходится на миллионы фермеров с небольшими участками. Дерево начинает плодоносить через четыре или пять лет. Зрелое дерево может давать 6000 цветков в год, но только около 20 стручков. Для производства какао-пасты требуется около 1200 семян (40 стручков). Исторически производители шоколада выделяли три основные группы сортов какао-бобов, используемых для производства какао и шоколада: Forastero, Criollo и Trinitario. Наиболее ценной, редкой и дорогой является группа Criollo, какао-боб, используемый майя. Только 10% шоколада производится из Criollo, который, возможно, менее горький и более ароматный, чем любой другой боб. В ноябре 2000 года какао-бобы из Чуао получили наименование по происхождению под названием Cacao de Chuao (с испанского: «какао из Чуао»). 80% шоколада производится из бобов группы Forastero, основным и наиболее распространенным сортом является Amenolado, в то время как сорт Arriba (например, Nacional) реже встречается в продукции Forastero. Деревья Forastero значительно более выносливы и устойчивы к болезням, чем деревья Criollo, что приводит к более дешевым какао-бобам. Крупнейшие переработчики какао-бобов включают Hershey's, Nestlé и Mars, которые закупают какао-бобы из различных источников. Шоколад можно изготовить из T. cacao посредством последовательности этапов, включающих сбор урожая, ферментацию мякоти T. cacao, сушку, сбор урожая и последующую экстракцию. Было обнаружено, что обжарка T. cacao с использованием перегретого пара лучше, чем традиционная обжарка (использование печей), поскольку она давала такое же качество какао-бобов за меньшее время. |}
Speciesbox
|image = Matadecacao. jpg
|image caption = Cacao fruits on the tree
|genus = Theobroma
|species = cacao
|authority = L.
|synonyms = *Cacao minaGaertn. Cacao minus Gaertn. Cacao sativa Aubl. Cacao theobroma Tussac Theobroma cacao f. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Ducke Theobroma cacao subsp. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Cuatrec. Theobroma cacao var. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Cif. Theobroma cacao subsp. sativa (Aubl.) LeónTheobroma cacao var. typica Cif. Theobroma caribaea Sweet Theobroma integerrima Stokes Theobroma kalagua De Wild. Theobroma leiocarpum Bernoulli Theobroma pentagonum BernoulliTheobroma saltzmanniana BernoulliTheobroma sapidum Pittier Theobroma sativa (Aubl.) Lign. & Le Bey Theobroma sativa var. leucosperma A. Chev. Theobroma sativa var. melanosperma A. Chev. Theobroma sativum (Aubl.) Lign. & Bey
|synonyms ref =
Theobroma cacao (cacao tree or cocoa tree) is a small ( tall) evergreen tree in the family Malvaceae. Its seeds, cocoa beans, are used to make chocolate liquor, cocoa solids, cocoa butter and chocolate. Native to the tropics of the Americas, the largest producer of cocoa beans in 2018 was Ivory Coast, at 2.2 million tons. Its leaves are alternate, entire, unlobed, long and broad. Description
Flowers
The flowers are produced in clusters directly on the trunk and older branches; this is known as cauliflory. The flowers are small, diameter, with pink calyx. The floral formula, used to represent the structure of a flower using numbers, is ✶ K5 C5 A(5°+52) (5). While many of the world's flowers are pollinated by bees (Hymenoptera) or butterflies/moths (Lepidoptera), cacao flowers are pollinated by tiny flies, Forcipomyia midges in the subfamily Forcipomyiinae. Using the natural pollinator Forcipomyia midges for Theobroma cacao was shown to have more fruit production than using artificial pollinators. Each seed contains a significant amount of fat (40–50%) as cocoa butter. The fruit's active constituent is the stimulant theobromine, a compound similar to caffeine. Nomenclature
The generic name Theobroma is derived from the Greek for "food of the gods"; from θεός (theos), meaning 'god' or 'divine', and βρῶμα (broma), meaning 'food'. The specific name cacao is the Hispanization of the name given to the plant in indigenous Mesoamerican languages such as kakaw in Tzeltal, Kʼicheʼ and Classic Maya; kagaw in Sayula Popoluca; and cacahuatl in Nahuatl meaning "bean of the cocoa tree". Taxonomy
Cacao (Theobroma cacao) is one of 26 species belonging to the genus Theobroma classified under the subfamily Byttnerioideae of the mallow family Malvaceae. Distribution and domesticationT. cacao is widely distributed from southeastern Mexico to the Amazon basin. There were originally two hypotheses about its domestication; one said that there were two foci for domestication, one in the Lacandon Jungle area of Mexico and another in lowland South America. More recent studies of patterns of DNA diversity, however, suggest that this is not the case. One study This result suggests that this is where T. cacao was originally domesticated, probably for the pulp that surrounds the beans, which is eaten as a snack and fermented into a mildly alcoholic beverage. Using the DNA sequences and comparing them with data derived from climate models and the known conditions suitable for cacao, one study refined the view of domestication, linking the area of greatest cacao genetic diversity to a bean shaped area that encompasses Ecuador, the border between Brazil and Peru and the southern part of the Colombian–Brazilian border. Climate models indicate that at the peak of the last ice age 21,000 years ago, when habitat suitable for cacao was at its most reduced, this area was still suitable, and so provided a refugium for species. Cacao trees grow well as understory plants in humid forest ecosystems. This is equally true of abandoned cultivated trees, making it difficult to distinguish truly wild trees from those whose parents may originally have been cultivated. Currency system
Cacao beans constituted both a ritual beverage and a major currency system in pre Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations. At one point, the Aztec empire received a yearly tribute of 980 loads of cacao, in addition to other goods. Each load represented exactly 8,000 beans. The buying power of quality beans was such that 80–100 beans could buy a new cloth mantle. The use of cacao beans as currency is also known to have spawned counterfeiters during the Aztec empire. Cultivation
In 2016, cocoa beans were cultivated on roughly worldwide. Cocoa beans are grown by large agroindustrial plantations and small producers, the bulk of production coming from millions of farmers with small plots. A tree begins to bear when it is four or five years old. A mature tree may have 6,000 flowers in a year, yet only about 20 pods. About 1,200 seeds (40 pods) are required to produce of cocoa paste. Historically, chocolate makers have recognized three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate: Forastero, Criollo and Trinitario. The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya. Only 10% of chocolate is made from Criollo, which is arguably less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. In November 2000, the cacao beans coming from Chuao were awarded an appellation of origin under the title Cacao de Chuao (from Spanish: 'cacao of Chuao'). The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero group, the main and most ubiquitous variety being the Amenolado variety, while the Arriba variety (such as the Nacional variety) are less commonly found in Forastero produce. Forastero trees are significantly hardier and more disease resistant than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans. Major cocoa bean processors include Hershey's, Nestlé and Mars, all of which purchase cocoa beans via various sources. Chocolate can be made from T. cacao through a process of steps that involve harvesting, fermenting of T. cacao pulp, drying, harvesting, and then extraction. Roasting T. cacao by using superheated steam was found to be better than conventional roasting (use of ovens) because it resulted in same quality of cocoa beans in a shorter amount of time. |}
In 2018, world production of cocoa beans was , led by Ivory Coast with 37% of the total. Other major producers were Ghana (18%) and Indonesia (11%). In an effort to improve the diversity available to breeders, and ensure the future of the field genebanks, experts have drawn up A Global Strategy for the Conservation and Use of Cacao Genetic Resources, as the Foundation for a Sustainable Cocoa Economy. The strategy has been adopted by the cacao producers and their clients, and seeks to improve the characterization of cacao diversity, the sustainability and diversity of the cacao collections, the usefulness of the collections, and to ease access to better information about the conserved material. Some natural areas of cacao diversity are protected by various forms of conservation, for example national parks. However, a recent study of genetic diversity and predicted climates
A specific bacterium Streptomyces camerooniansis was found to be beneficial for T. cacao by helping plant growth by accelerating seed germination of T. cacao, inhibiting growth of various types of microorganisms (such as different oomycetes, fungi, and bacteria), and preventing rotting by Phytophthora megakarya. Pests
Various plant pests and diseases can cause serious problems for cacao production. Insects
Cocoa mirids or capsids worldwide (but especially Sahlbergella singularis and Distantiella theobroma in West Africa and Helopeltis spp. in Southeast Asia)Bathycoelia thalassina West Africa
Conopomorpha cramerella (cocoa pod borer – in Southeast Asia)
Carmenta theobromae C. & S. America
Fungi
Moniliophthora roreri (frosty pod rot)
Moniliophthora perniciosa (witches' broom)
Ceratocystis cacaofunesta (mal de machete) or (Ceratocystis wilt)
Verticillium dahliae
Oncobasidium theobromae (vascular streak dieback)
Oomycetes
Phytophthora spp. (black pod) especially Phytophthora megakarya in West Africa
Viruses
Cacao swollen shoot virus
Mistletoe
Rats and other vertebrate pests (squirrels, woodpeckers, etc.)
В 2018 году мировое производство какао-бобов составило, лидером была Кот-д’Ивуар с 37% от общего объема. Другими крупными производителями были Гана (18%) и Индонезия (11%). В целях улучшения разнообразия, доступного селекционерам, и обеспечения будущего полевых генных банков эксперты разработали Глобальную стратегию сохранения и использования генетических ресурсов какао как основу для устойчивой экономики какао. Стратегия была принята производителями какао и их клиентами и направлена на улучшение характеристики разнообразия какао, устойчивости и разнообразия коллекций какао, полезности коллекций и облегчение доступа к лучшей информации о сохраненном материале. Некоторые природные районы разнообразия какао охраняются различными формами охраны, например, национальными парками. Однако недавнее исследование генетического разнообразия и прогнозируемых климатов
Speciesbox
|image = Matadecacao. jpg
|image caption = Cacao fruits on the tree
|genus = Theobroma
|species = cacao
|authority = L.
|synonyms = *Cacao minaGaertn. Cacao minus Gaertn. Cacao sativa Aubl. Cacao theobroma Tussac Theobroma cacao f. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Ducke Theobroma cacao subsp. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Cuatrec. Theobroma cacao var. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Cif. Theobroma cacao subsp. sativa (Aubl.) LeónTheobroma cacao var. typica Cif. Theobroma caribaea Sweet Theobroma integerrima Stokes Theobroma kalagua De Wild. Theobroma leiocarpum Bernoulli Theobroma pentagonum BernoulliTheobroma saltzmanniana BernoulliTheobroma sapidum Pittier Theobroma sativa (Aubl.) Lign. & Le Bey Theobroma sativa var. leucosperma A. Chev. Theobroma sativa var. melanosperma A. Chev. Theobroma sativum (Aubl.) Lign. & Bey
|synonyms ref =
Theobroma cacao (cacao tree or cocoa tree) is a small ( tall) evergreen tree in the family Malvaceae. Its seeds, cocoa beans, are used to make chocolate liquor, cocoa solids, cocoa butter and chocolate. Native to the tropics of the Americas, the largest producer of cocoa beans in 2018 was Ivory Coast, at 2.2 million tons. Its leaves are alternate, entire, unlobed, long and broad. Description
Flowers
The flowers are produced in clusters directly on the trunk and older branches; this is known as cauliflory. The flowers are small, diameter, with pink calyx. The floral formula, used to represent the structure of a flower using numbers, is ✶ K5 C5 A(5°+52) (5). While many of the world's flowers are pollinated by bees (Hymenoptera) or butterflies/moths (Lepidoptera), cacao flowers are pollinated by tiny flies, Forcipomyia midges in the subfamily Forcipomyiinae. Using the natural pollinator Forcipomyia midges for Theobroma cacao was shown to have more fruit production than using artificial pollinators. Each seed contains a significant amount of fat (40–50%) as cocoa butter. The fruit's active constituent is the stimulant theobromine, a compound similar to caffeine. Nomenclature
The generic name Theobroma is derived from the Greek for "food of the gods"; from θεός (theos), meaning 'god' or 'divine', and βρῶμα (broma), meaning 'food'. The specific name cacao is the Hispanization of the name given to the plant in indigenous Mesoamerican languages such as kakaw in Tzeltal, Kʼicheʼ and Classic Maya; kagaw in Sayula Popoluca; and cacahuatl in Nahuatl meaning "bean of the cocoa tree". Taxonomy
Cacao (Theobroma cacao) is one of 26 species belonging to the genus Theobroma classified under the subfamily Byttnerioideae of the mallow family Malvaceae. Distribution and domesticationT. cacao is widely distributed from southeastern Mexico to the Amazon basin. There were originally two hypotheses about its domestication; one said that there were two foci for domestication, one in the Lacandon Jungle area of Mexico and another in lowland South America. More recent studies of patterns of DNA diversity, however, suggest that this is not the case. One study This result suggests that this is where T. cacao was originally domesticated, probably for the pulp that surrounds the beans, which is eaten as a snack and fermented into a mildly alcoholic beverage. Using the DNA sequences and comparing them with data derived from climate models and the known conditions suitable for cacao, one study refined the view of domestication, linking the area of greatest cacao genetic diversity to a bean shaped area that encompasses Ecuador, the border between Brazil and Peru and the southern part of the Colombian–Brazilian border. Climate models indicate that at the peak of the last ice age 21,000 years ago, when habitat suitable for cacao was at its most reduced, this area was still suitable, and so provided a refugium for species. Cacao trees grow well as understory plants in humid forest ecosystems. This is equally true of abandoned cultivated trees, making it difficult to distinguish truly wild trees from those whose parents may originally have been cultivated. Currency system
Cacao beans constituted both a ritual beverage and a major currency system in pre Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations. At one point, the Aztec empire received a yearly tribute of 980 loads of cacao, in addition to other goods. Each load represented exactly 8,000 beans. The buying power of quality beans was such that 80–100 beans could buy a new cloth mantle. The use of cacao beans as currency is also known to have spawned counterfeiters during the Aztec empire. Cultivation
In 2016, cocoa beans were cultivated on roughly worldwide. Cocoa beans are grown by large agroindustrial plantations and small producers, the bulk of production coming from millions of farmers with small plots. A tree begins to bear when it is four or five years old. A mature tree may have 6,000 flowers in a year, yet only about 20 pods. About 1,200 seeds (40 pods) are required to produce of cocoa paste. Historically, chocolate makers have recognized three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate: Forastero, Criollo and Trinitario. The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya. Only 10% of chocolate is made from Criollo, which is arguably less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. In November 2000, the cacao beans coming from Chuao were awarded an appellation of origin under the title Cacao de Chuao (from Spanish: 'cacao of Chuao'). The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero group, the main and most ubiquitous variety being the Amenolado variety, while the Arriba variety (such as the Nacional variety) are less commonly found in Forastero produce. Forastero trees are significantly hardier and more disease resistant than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans. Major cocoa bean processors include Hershey's, Nestlé and Mars, all of which purchase cocoa beans via various sources. Chocolate can be made from T. cacao through a process of steps that involve harvesting, fermenting of T. cacao pulp, drying, harvesting, and then extraction. Roasting T. cacao by using superheated steam was found to be better than conventional roasting (use of ovens) because it resulted in same quality of cocoa beans in a shorter amount of time. |}
In 2018, world production of cocoa beans was , led by Ivory Coast with 37% of the total. Other major producers were Ghana (18%) and Indonesia (11%). In an effort to improve the diversity available to breeders, and ensure the future of the field genebanks, experts have drawn up A Global Strategy for the Conservation and Use of Cacao Genetic Resources, as the Foundation for a Sustainable Cocoa Economy. The strategy has been adopted by the cacao producers and their clients, and seeks to improve the characterization of cacao diversity, the sustainability and diversity of the cacao collections, the usefulness of the collections, and to ease access to better information about the conserved material. Some natural areas of cacao diversity are protected by various forms of conservation, for example national parks. However, a recent study of genetic diversity and predicted climates
A specific bacterium Streptomyces camerooniansis was found to be beneficial for T. cacao by helping plant growth by accelerating seed germination of T. cacao, inhibiting growth of various types of microorganisms (such as different oomycetes, fungi, and bacteria), and preventing rotting by Phytophthora megakarya. Pests
Various plant pests and diseases can cause serious problems for cacao production. Insects
Cocoa mirids or capsids worldwide (but especially Sahlbergella singularis and Distantiella theobroma in West Africa and Helopeltis spp. in Southeast Asia)Bathycoelia thalassina West Africa
Conopomorpha cramerella (cocoa pod borer – in Southeast Asia)
Carmenta theobromae C. & S. America
Fungi
Moniliophthora roreri (frosty pod rot)
Moniliophthora perniciosa (witches' broom)
Ceratocystis cacaofunesta (mal de machete) or (Ceratocystis wilt)
Verticillium dahliae
Oncobasidium theobromae (vascular streak dieback)
Oomycetes
Phytophthora spp. (black pod) especially Phytophthora megakarya in West Africa
Viruses
Cacao swollen shoot virus
Mistletoe
Rats and other vertebrate pests (squirrels, woodpeckers, etc.)
Определенная бактерия Streptomyces camerooniansis была признана полезной для T. cacao, поскольку она способствует росту растений, ускоряя прорастание семян T. cacao, подавляя рост различных типов микроорганизмов (таких как различные оомицеты, грибы и бактерии) и предотвращая гниение, вызванное Phytophthora megakarya. Вредители
Speciesbox
|image = Matadecacao. jpg
|image caption = Cacao fruits on the tree
|genus = Theobroma
|species = cacao
|authority = L.
|synonyms = *Cacao minaGaertn. Cacao minus Gaertn. Cacao sativa Aubl. Cacao theobroma Tussac Theobroma cacao f. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Ducke Theobroma cacao subsp. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Cuatrec. Theobroma cacao var. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Cif. Theobroma cacao subsp. sativa (Aubl.) LeónTheobroma cacao var. typica Cif. Theobroma caribaea Sweet Theobroma integerrima Stokes Theobroma kalagua De Wild. Theobroma leiocarpum Bernoulli Theobroma pentagonum BernoulliTheobroma saltzmanniana BernoulliTheobroma sapidum Pittier Theobroma sativa (Aubl.) Lign. & Le Bey Theobroma sativa var. leucosperma A. Chev. Theobroma sativa var. melanosperma A. Chev. Theobroma sativum (Aubl.) Lign. & Bey
|synonyms ref =
Theobroma cacao (cacao tree or cocoa tree) is a small ( tall) evergreen tree in the family Malvaceae. Its seeds, cocoa beans, are used to make chocolate liquor, cocoa solids, cocoa butter and chocolate. Native to the tropics of the Americas, the largest producer of cocoa beans in 2018 was Ivory Coast, at 2.2 million tons. Its leaves are alternate, entire, unlobed, long and broad. Description
Flowers
The flowers are produced in clusters directly on the trunk and older branches; this is known as cauliflory. The flowers are small, diameter, with pink calyx. The floral formula, used to represent the structure of a flower using numbers, is ✶ K5 C5 A(5°+52) (5). While many of the world's flowers are pollinated by bees (Hymenoptera) or butterflies/moths (Lepidoptera), cacao flowers are pollinated by tiny flies, Forcipomyia midges in the subfamily Forcipomyiinae. Using the natural pollinator Forcipomyia midges for Theobroma cacao was shown to have more fruit production than using artificial pollinators. Each seed contains a significant amount of fat (40–50%) as cocoa butter. The fruit's active constituent is the stimulant theobromine, a compound similar to caffeine. Nomenclature
The generic name Theobroma is derived from the Greek for "food of the gods"; from θεός (theos), meaning 'god' or 'divine', and βρῶμα (broma), meaning 'food'. The specific name cacao is the Hispanization of the name given to the plant in indigenous Mesoamerican languages such as kakaw in Tzeltal, Kʼicheʼ and Classic Maya; kagaw in Sayula Popoluca; and cacahuatl in Nahuatl meaning "bean of the cocoa tree". Taxonomy
Cacao (Theobroma cacao) is one of 26 species belonging to the genus Theobroma classified under the subfamily Byttnerioideae of the mallow family Malvaceae. Distribution and domesticationT. cacao is widely distributed from southeastern Mexico to the Amazon basin. There were originally two hypotheses about its domestication; one said that there were two foci for domestication, one in the Lacandon Jungle area of Mexico and another in lowland South America. More recent studies of patterns of DNA diversity, however, suggest that this is not the case. One study This result suggests that this is where T. cacao was originally domesticated, probably for the pulp that surrounds the beans, which is eaten as a snack and fermented into a mildly alcoholic beverage. Using the DNA sequences and comparing them with data derived from climate models and the known conditions suitable for cacao, one study refined the view of domestication, linking the area of greatest cacao genetic diversity to a bean shaped area that encompasses Ecuador, the border between Brazil and Peru and the southern part of the Colombian–Brazilian border. Climate models indicate that at the peak of the last ice age 21,000 years ago, when habitat suitable for cacao was at its most reduced, this area was still suitable, and so provided a refugium for species. Cacao trees grow well as understory plants in humid forest ecosystems. This is equally true of abandoned cultivated trees, making it difficult to distinguish truly wild trees from those whose parents may originally have been cultivated. Currency system
Cacao beans constituted both a ritual beverage and a major currency system in pre Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations. At one point, the Aztec empire received a yearly tribute of 980 loads of cacao, in addition to other goods. Each load represented exactly 8,000 beans. The buying power of quality beans was such that 80–100 beans could buy a new cloth mantle. The use of cacao beans as currency is also known to have spawned counterfeiters during the Aztec empire. Cultivation
In 2016, cocoa beans were cultivated on roughly worldwide. Cocoa beans are grown by large agroindustrial plantations and small producers, the bulk of production coming from millions of farmers with small plots. A tree begins to bear when it is four or five years old. A mature tree may have 6,000 flowers in a year, yet only about 20 pods. About 1,200 seeds (40 pods) are required to produce of cocoa paste. Historically, chocolate makers have recognized three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate: Forastero, Criollo and Trinitario. The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya. Only 10% of chocolate is made from Criollo, which is arguably less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. In November 2000, the cacao beans coming from Chuao were awarded an appellation of origin under the title Cacao de Chuao (from Spanish: 'cacao of Chuao'). The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero group, the main and most ubiquitous variety being the Amenolado variety, while the Arriba variety (such as the Nacional variety) are less commonly found in Forastero produce. Forastero trees are significantly hardier and more disease resistant than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans. Major cocoa bean processors include Hershey's, Nestlé and Mars, all of which purchase cocoa beans via various sources. Chocolate can be made from T. cacao through a process of steps that involve harvesting, fermenting of T. cacao pulp, drying, harvesting, and then extraction. Roasting T. cacao by using superheated steam was found to be better than conventional roasting (use of ovens) because it resulted in same quality of cocoa beans in a shorter amount of time. |}
In 2018, world production of cocoa beans was , led by Ivory Coast with 37% of the total. Other major producers were Ghana (18%) and Indonesia (11%). In an effort to improve the diversity available to breeders, and ensure the future of the field genebanks, experts have drawn up A Global Strategy for the Conservation and Use of Cacao Genetic Resources, as the Foundation for a Sustainable Cocoa Economy. The strategy has been adopted by the cacao producers and their clients, and seeks to improve the characterization of cacao diversity, the sustainability and diversity of the cacao collections, the usefulness of the collections, and to ease access to better information about the conserved material. Some natural areas of cacao diversity are protected by various forms of conservation, for example national parks. However, a recent study of genetic diversity and predicted climates
A specific bacterium Streptomyces camerooniansis was found to be beneficial for T. cacao by helping plant growth by accelerating seed germination of T. cacao, inhibiting growth of various types of microorganisms (such as different oomycetes, fungi, and bacteria), and preventing rotting by Phytophthora megakarya. Pests
Various plant pests and diseases can cause serious problems for cacao production. Insects
Cocoa mirids or capsids worldwide (but especially Sahlbergella singularis and Distantiella theobroma in West Africa and Helopeltis spp. in Southeast Asia)Bathycoelia thalassina West Africa
Conopomorpha cramerella (cocoa pod borer – in Southeast Asia)
Carmenta theobromae C. & S. America
Fungi
Moniliophthora roreri (frosty pod rot)
Moniliophthora perniciosa (witches' broom)
Ceratocystis cacaofunesta (mal de machete) or (Ceratocystis wilt)
Verticillium dahliae
Oncobasidium theobromae (vascular streak dieback)
Oomycetes
Phytophthora spp. (black pod) especially Phytophthora megakarya in West Africa
Viruses
Cacao swollen shoot virus
Mistletoe
Rats and other vertebrate pests (squirrels, woodpeckers, etc.)
Различные вредители и болезни растений могут вызывать серьезные проблемы при производстве какао. Насекомые
Какао-мириды или капсиды по всему миру (особенно Sahlbergella singularis и Distantiella theobroma в Западной Африке и Helopeltis spp. в Юго-Восточной Азии)Bathycoelia thalassina Западная Африка
Conopomorpha cramerella (плодовой сверлильщик какао – в Юго-Восточной Азии)
Carmenta theobromae С. и Ю. Америка
Грибы
Moniliophthora roreri (подгнили стручков)
Mo...
Speciesbox
|image = Matadecacao. jpg
|image caption = Cacao fruits on the tree
|genus = Theobroma
|species = cacao
|authority = L.
|synonyms = *Cacao minaGaertn. Cacao minus Gaertn. Cacao sativa Aubl. Cacao theobroma Tussac Theobroma cacao f. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Ducke Theobroma cacao subsp. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Cuatrec. Theobroma cacao var. leiocarpum (Bernoulli) Cif. Theobroma cacao subsp. sativa (Aubl.) LeónTheobroma cacao var. typica Cif. Theobroma caribaea Sweet Theobroma integerrima Stokes Theobroma kalagua De Wild. Theobroma leiocarpum Bernoulli Theobroma pentagonum BernoulliTheobroma saltzmanniana BernoulliTheobroma sapidum Pittier Theobroma sativa (Aubl.) Lign. & Le Bey Theobroma sativa var. leucosperma A. Chev. Theobroma sativa var. melanosperma A. Chev. Theobroma sativum (Aubl.) Lign. & Bey
|synonyms ref =
Theobroma cacao (cacao tree or cocoa tree) is a small ( tall) evergreen tree in the family Malvaceae. Its seeds, cocoa beans, are used to make chocolate liquor, cocoa solids, cocoa butter and chocolate. Native to the tropics of the Americas, the largest producer of cocoa beans in 2018 was Ivory Coast, at 2.2 million tons. Its leaves are alternate, entire, unlobed, long and broad. Description
Flowers
The flowers are produced in clusters directly on the trunk and older branches; this is known as cauliflory. The flowers are small, diameter, with pink calyx. The floral formula, used to represent the structure of a flower using numbers, is ✶ K5 C5 A(5°+52) (5). While many of the world's flowers are pollinated by bees (Hymenoptera) or butterflies/moths (Lepidoptera), cacao flowers are pollinated by tiny flies, Forcipomyia midges in the subfamily Forcipomyiinae. Using the natural pollinator Forcipomyia midges for Theobroma cacao was shown to have more fruit production than using artificial pollinators. Each seed contains a significant amount of fat (40–50%) as cocoa butter. The fruit's active constituent is the stimulant theobromine, a compound similar to caffeine. Nomenclature
The generic name Theobroma is derived from the Greek for "food of the gods"; from θεός (theos), meaning 'god' or 'divine', and βρῶμα (broma), meaning 'food'. The specific name cacao is the Hispanization of the name given to the plant in indigenous Mesoamerican languages such as kakaw in Tzeltal, Kʼicheʼ and Classic Maya; kagaw in Sayula Popoluca; and cacahuatl in Nahuatl meaning "bean of the cocoa tree". Taxonomy
Cacao (Theobroma cacao) is one of 26 species belonging to the genus Theobroma classified under the subfamily Byttnerioideae of the mallow family Malvaceae. Distribution and domesticationT. cacao is widely distributed from southeastern Mexico to the Amazon basin. There were originally two hypotheses about its domestication; one said that there were two foci for domestication, one in the Lacandon Jungle area of Mexico and another in lowland South America. More recent studies of patterns of DNA diversity, however, suggest that this is not the case. One study This result suggests that this is where T. cacao was originally domesticated, probably for the pulp that surrounds the beans, which is eaten as a snack and fermented into a mildly alcoholic beverage. Using the DNA sequences and comparing them with data derived from climate models and the known conditions suitable for cacao, one study refined the view of domestication, linking the area of greatest cacao genetic diversity to a bean shaped area that encompasses Ecuador, the border between Brazil and Peru and the southern part of the Colombian–Brazilian border. Climate models indicate that at the peak of the last ice age 21,000 years ago, when habitat suitable for cacao was at its most reduced, this area was still suitable, and so provided a refugium for species. Cacao trees grow well as understory plants in humid forest ecosystems. This is equally true of abandoned cultivated trees, making it difficult to distinguish truly wild trees from those whose parents may originally have been cultivated. Currency system
Cacao beans constituted both a ritual beverage and a major currency system in pre Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations. At one point, the Aztec empire received a yearly tribute of 980 loads of cacao, in addition to other goods. Each load represented exactly 8,000 beans. The buying power of quality beans was such that 80–100 beans could buy a new cloth mantle. The use of cacao beans as currency is also known to have spawned counterfeiters during the Aztec empire. Cultivation
In 2016, cocoa beans were cultivated on roughly worldwide. Cocoa beans are grown by large agroindustrial plantations and small producers, the bulk of production coming from millions of farmers with small plots. A tree begins to bear when it is four or five years old. A mature tree may have 6,000 flowers in a year, yet only about 20 pods. About 1,200 seeds (40 pods) are required to produce of cocoa paste. Historically, chocolate makers have recognized three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate: Forastero, Criollo and Trinitario. The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya. Only 10% of chocolate is made from Criollo, which is arguably less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. In November 2000, the cacao beans coming from Chuao were awarded an appellation of origin under the title Cacao de Chuao (from Spanish: 'cacao of Chuao'). The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero group, the main and most ubiquitous variety being the Amenolado variety, while the Arriba variety (such as the Nacional variety) are less commonly found in Forastero produce. Forastero trees are significantly hardier and more disease resistant than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans. Major cocoa bean processors include Hershey's, Nestlé and Mars, all of which purchase cocoa beans via various sources. Chocolate can be made from T. cacao through a process of steps that involve harvesting, fermenting of T. cacao pulp, drying, harvesting, and then extraction. Roasting T. cacao by using superheated steam was found to be better than conventional roasting (use of ovens) because it resulted in same quality of cocoa beans in a shorter amount of time. |}
In 2018, world production of cocoa beans was , led by Ivory Coast with 37% of the total. Other major producers were Ghana (18%) and Indonesia (11%). In an effort to improve the diversity available to breeders, and ensure the future of the field genebanks, experts have drawn up A Global Strategy for the Conservation and Use of Cacao Genetic Resources, as the Foundation for a Sustainable Cocoa Economy. The strategy has been adopted by the cacao producers and their clients, and seeks to improve the characterization of cacao diversity, the sustainability and diversity of the cacao collections, the usefulness of the collections, and to ease access to better information about the conserved material. Some natural areas of cacao diversity are protected by various forms of conservation, for example national parks. However, a recent study of genetic diversity and predicted climates
A specific bacterium Streptomyces camerooniansis was found to be beneficial for T. cacao by helping plant growth by accelerating seed germination of T. cacao, inhibiting growth of various types of microorganisms (such as different oomycetes, fungi, and bacteria), and preventing rotting by Phytophthora megakarya. Pests
Various plant pests and diseases can cause serious problems for cacao production. Insects
Cocoa mirids or capsids worldwide (but especially Sahlbergella singularis and Distantiella theobroma in West Africa and Helopeltis spp. in Southeast Asia)Bathycoelia thalassina West Africa
Conopomorpha cramerella (cocoa pod borer – in Southeast Asia)
Carmenta theobromae C. & S. America
Fungi
Moniliophthora roreri (frosty pod rot)
Moniliophthora perniciosa (witches' broom)
Ceratocystis cacaofunesta (mal de machete) or (Ceratocystis wilt)
Verticillium dahliae
Oncobasidium theobromae (vascular streak dieback)
Oomycetes
Phytophthora spp. (black pod) especially Phytophthora megakarya in West Africa
Viruses
Cacao swollen shoot virus
Mistletoe
Rats and other vertebrate pests (squirrels, woodpeckers, etc.)
Геном
Геном *T. cacao* диплоиден, его размер составляет 430 Мбп, и он состоит из 10 пар хромосом (2n=2x=20). В сентябре 2010 года группа ученых объявила о получении предварительной последовательности генома какао (генотип Matina1 6). В рамках другого, независимого проекта, Международный консорциум по секвенированию генома какао (ICGS), координируемый CIRAD, впервые опубликовал в декабре 2010 года (онлайн, печатная публикация в январе 2011 года) последовательность генома какао сорта Criollo (линейный сорт из Белиза, B97 61/B2). В своей публикации они представили детальный анализ геномных и генетических данных. Последовательность генома какао идентифицировала 28 798 генов, кодирующих белки, по сравнению с примерно 23 000 генов, кодирующих белки, в геноме человека. Около 20% генома какао составляют транспозоны, что является относительно низкой долей по сравнению с другими видами растений. Было идентифицировано множество генов, кодирующих флавоноиды, ароматические терпеноиды, теобромин и многие другие метаболиты, участвующие в формировании вкуса и качественных характеристик какао, среди которых относительно высокая доля кодирует полифенолы, составляющие до 8% сухой массы какао-бобов. Геном какао близок к гипотетическому гексаплоидному предку всех двудольных растений, и предлагается как эволюционный механизм, посредством которого 21 хромосома гипотетического гексаплоидного предка двудольных подверглась крупным слияниям, в результате чего образовались 10 хромосомных пар какао. Последовательность генома позволяет использовать молекулярную биологию какао и селекцию элитных сортов с помощью селекции по маркерам, в частности, для обеспечения генетической устойчивости к грибковым, оомицетным и вирусным заболеваниям, которые ежегодно приводят к значительным потерям урожая. В 2017–2018 годах, в связи с опасениями по поводу выживаемости какао-растений в условиях глобального потепления, когда климат становится более экстремальным в узкой полосе широт, где выращивается какао (20 градусов к северу и югу от экватора), коммерческая компания Mars, Incorporated и Калифорнийский университет в Беркли используют CRISPR для модификации ДНК с целью повышения устойчивости какао к жаркому климату.
История выращивания
Какао-дерево, родом из тропических лесов Амазонки, впервые было одомашнено не менее 5300 лет назад в экваториальной Южной Америке, на территории современного юго-восточного Эквадора (провинция Замора-Чинчипе), в поселении Санта-Ана-Ла-Флорида (SALF), культурой Майо-Чинчипе, до того как оно попало в Мезоамерику. В Мезоамерике на археологических раскопках, датируемых ранним формирующим периодом (1900–900 гг. до н.э.), были найдены керамические сосуды с остатками приготовления напитков из какао. Например, один из таких сосудов, обнаруженный на археологическом памятнике культуры ольмеков на побережье залива Веракрус в Мексике, указывает на то, что приготовление какао народами, предшествовавшими ольмекам, началось еще в 1750 г. до н.э. На тихоокеанском побережье штата Чьяпас, Мексика, археологический памятник Мокая содержит свидетельства о напитках из какао, датируемых еще более ранним периодом – 1900 г. до н.э. В 2018 году исследователи, проанализировавшие геном культивируемых какао-деревьев, пришли к выводу, что все одомашненные деревья какао произошли от единичного события одомашнивания, произошедшего около 3600 лет назад где-то в Центральной Америке. В древних текстах описано множество смесей с какао, использовавшихся в церемониальных, лекарственных и кулинарных целях. Некоторые из них включали кукурузу, перец чили, ваниль (Vanilla planifolia) и мед. Археологические свидетельства использования какао, хотя и немногочисленные, были получены благодаря находке целых какао-бобов в Уаксактуне (Гватемала) и сохранению фрагментов древесины какао-дерева на участках в Белизе, таких как Куэлло и болото Пуллтроузер. Кроме того, анализ остатков в керамических сосудах выявил следы теобромина и кофеина в сосудах раннего формирующего периода из Пуэрто-Эскондидо (Гондурас, 1100–900 гг. до н.э.) и в сосудах среднего формирующего периода из Колхи (Белиз, 600–400 гг. до н.э.). Для этого использовались методы, аналогичные тем, что применялись для извлечения остатков шоколада из четырех сосудов классического периода (около 400 г. н.э.) из гробницы на археологическом памятнике майя Рио-Азуль. Поскольку какао – единственный известный товар из Мезоамерики, содержащий оба этих алкалоидных соединения, вероятно, эти сосуды использовались для хранения напитков из какао. Кроме того, какао упоминается в иероглифическом тексте на одном из сосудов из Рио-Азуль. Считается также, что ацтеки измельчали какао и смешивали его с табаком для курения. Одомашнивание какао культурой Майо-Чинчипе в верховьях Амазонки началось около 3000 г. до н.э.
Современная история
Первое знакомство европейцев с шоколадом произошло в виде напитка, который был впервые представлен испанцам во время их встречи с Монтесумой в столице ацтеков Теночтитлане в 1519 году. Кортес и другие отмечали огромные количества этого напитка, которые потреблял ацтекский император, и то, как тщательно его взбивали его слуги заранее. В то время в Испанию были привезены образцы какао-бобов и других сельскохозяйственных продуктов, однако, по-видимому, напиток из какао был представлен испанскому двору в 1544 году знатью кеки-майя, привезенной из Нового Света в Испанию доминиканскими монахами для встречи с принцем Филиппом. В течение столетия шоколад распространился во Франции, Англии и других странах Западной Европы. Спрос на этот напиток побудил французов основать плантации какао в Карибском бассейне, а Испания впоследствии развила свои плантации какао в своих венесуэльских и филиппинских колониях (Bloom 1998, Coe 1996). На картине голландского художника Золотого века Альберта Экхаута изображено дикое дерево какао в середине XVII века в Голландской Бразилии. Испанское слово «какао», происходящее из языка науатль, вошло в научную номенклатуру в 1753 году после того, как шведский натуралист Линней опубликовал свою таксономическую биномиальную систему и ввел родовое и видовое название Theobroma cacao. Традиционные доиспанские напитки, приготовленные из какао, до сих пор употребляются в Мезоамерике, включая оаканский напиток, известный как техате.
Культура
Майя верили, что какао было открыто богами в горе, где также находились другие восхитительные продукты, предназначенные для их употребления. Согласно мифологии майя, Плюматый Змей даровал какао майя после того, как люди были созданы из кукурузы божественной праматерью Ксмукане. Майя ежегодно в апреле праздновали фестиваль в честь своего бога какао, Эк Чуа, который включал в себя жертвоприношение собаки с отметинами цвета какао, дополнительные жертвоприношения животных, подношения какао, перьев и благовоний, а также обмен дарами. В схожей истории о сотворении мира, ацтекский бог Кетцалькоатль обнаружил какао (какауатль: "горькая вода") в горе, изобилующей другими растительными продуктами. Какао регулярно преподносили пантеону ацтекских божеств, а Мадридский кодекс изображает жрецов, рассекающих мочки ушей (самопожертвование) и покрывающих какао кровью в качестве достойной жертвы богам. Напиток из какао использовался в ритуалах исключительно мужчинами, поскольку считалось, что это опьяняющая пища, не подходящая для женщин и детей.