Чтение Торы: еврейская традиция и обряды

Jewish tradition that involves the public reading from a Torah scroll

Torah reading (; ) is a Jewish religious tradition that involves the public reading of a set of passages from a Torah scroll. The term often refers to the entire ceremony of removing the scroll (or scrolls) from the Torah ark, chanting the appropriate excerpt with special cantillation (trope), and returning the scroll(s) to the ark. It is also commonly called "laining" (lein is also spelt lain, leyn, layn; from the Yiddish , which means "to read"). Regular public reading of the Torah was introduced by Ezra the Scribe after the return of the Judean exiles from the Babylonian captivity (c. 537 BCE), as described in the Book of Nehemiah. In the modern era, Orthodox Jews practice Torah reading according to a set procedure almost unchanged since the Talmudic era. Since the 19th century CE, Reform and Conservative Judaism have made adaptations to the practice of Torah reading, but the basic pattern of Torah reading has usually remained the same:

As a part of the morning or afternoon prayer services on certain days of the week or holidays, a section of the Pentateuch is read from a Torah scroll. On Shabbat (Saturday) mornings, a weekly section (known as a sedra or parashah) is read, selected so that the entire Pentateuch is read consecutively each year. On Sabbath afternoons, Mondays, and Thursdays, the beginning of the following Sabbath's portion is read. On Jewish holidays, Rosh Chodesh, and fast days, special sections connected to the day are read. Many Jews observe an annual holiday, Simchat Torah, to celebrate the completion of the year's cycle of readings.

The introduction of public reading of the Torah by Ezra the Scribe after the return of the Judean exiles is described in Nehemiah Chapter 8. However, the reading of the Torah three times a week (albeit not as many verses) goes back to the times of Moses. The mitzvah of Torah reading was based on the Biblical commandment of Hakhel (Deuteronomy 31:10–13), by which once every 7 years the entire people was to be gathered, "men, women and children," and hear much of Deuteronomy, the final volume of the Pentateuch, read to them (see the closing chapters of the Talmudic tractate Sotah) by the King. Torah reading is discussed in the Mishna and Talmud, primarily in tractate Megilla. It has been suggested that the reading of the Law was due to a desire to controvert the views of the Samaritans with regard to the various festivals, for which reason arrangements were made to have the passages of the Pentateuch relating to those festivals read and expounded on the feast days themselves.

The beginning each weekly parashah (usually the first segment of seven) from the Torah is read during the morning services on Sabbath afternoons, Mondays and Thursdays. The entire weekly parashah is read on Saturdays mornings. Most major and minor festival and fast days have a unique Torah reading devoted to that day. The Torah is also read during afternoon services on fasts and Yom Kippur. When the Torah is read in the morning, it comes after Tachanun or Hallel, or, if these are omitted, immediately after the Amidah. The Torah reading is followed by the recitation of the Half Kaddish. When the Torah is read during the afternoon prayers, it occurs immediately before the Amidah.

The term "Torah reading" is often used to refer to the entire ceremony of taking the Torah scroll (or scrolls) out of its ark, reading excerpts from the Torah with a special tune, and putting the scroll(s) back in the Ark. The Torah scroll is stored in an ornamental cabinet, called a holy ark , designed specifically for Torah scrolls. The Holy Ark is usually found in the front of the sanctuary, and is a central element of synagogue architecture. When needed for reading, the Torah is removed from the ark by someone chosen for the honor from among the congregants; specific prayers are recited as it is removed. The Torah is then carried by the one leading the services to the bimah — a platform or table from which it will be read; further prayers are recited by the congregation while this is done. Ikuv keriah, rarely practiced today, was a procedure by which community members could have their grievances addressed by interfering with the service at the time the Torah was removed from the Ark.

In the Sefardic tradition, the Torah is lifted before the reading, and this is called "Levantar", Spanish for "to lift up". In the Yemenite tradition, the Torah remains in a resting position while just the parchment is raised. In Ashkenazic tradition, lifting is called "Hagbaha" and is now usually done after the reading. The order was a matter of medieval dispute but the position of the Kol Bo, lifting before, eventually lost to that of Moses Isserles and is followed in only a few Ashkenazic communities. Two honorees are called: the Magbiah ("lifter") performs Hagbaha ("lifting [of the Torah]") and displays the Torah's Hebrew text for all to see, after which the Golel ("roller") performs Gelila ("rolling" [of the Torah]") and puts on the cover, belt, crown, and/or other ornaments (this role, originally distinguished, is now often given to minors). In Conservative, Reform, Reconstructionist, and some Open Orthodox congregations, these roles may also be performed by a woman. The respective titles for women are "Magbihah" and "Golelet". Rashi says on Megillah 32a that these roles were originally performed by the same honoree. As the Hagbaha is performed, the congregation points toward the Torah scroll with their pinky fingers and recites Deut. 4:44, "And this is the Law which Moses set before the people of Israel", adding, "on the word of the LORD, by hand of Moses." The custom of pointing has no clear origin. The medieval Ashkenazic custom (according to Moses Isserles) was to bow toward the scroll during Hagbaha; pointing is mentioned by Mordecai Crispin of Rhodes (c. 1730 1790) in a work published by his grandson in 1836; pointing with the pinky, first recorded as a "Russian" custom by the 1912 Jewish Encyclopedia, was codified by the Me'am Loez in 1969. Twentieth century additions to the Me'am Loez were written by an Ashkenazi, Shmuel Kroizer, but the Sephardic prestige of the work has helped the custom become near universal among both Sephardic and Ashkenazi Jews. (This assumes that such people are available; there are rules in place for what is done if they are not.) The first two aliyot are referred to as "Kohen " and "Levi," while the rest are known by their number (in Hebrew). This practice is also followed in some but not all Conservative synagogues. Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism have abolished special ritual roles for the descendants of the Biblical priestly and levitical castes. Each oleh, after being called to the Torah, approaches it, recites a benediction, a portion is read, and the oleh concludes with another benediction. Then the next oleh is called. In Ashkenazi congregations, as well as some Sephardi congregations, the gabbai recites a Hebrew verse upon calling the first person to the Torah. Afterward, men are called with: "Ya'amod (Let him arise), [Hebrew Name] ben (son of) [Father's Hebrew name] [Ha Kohen (the Kohen) / Ha Levi (the Levite)] (the name of the Aliyah in Hebrew)." (In Conservative and Reform synagogues where women may receive aliyot, women are called with "Ta'amod (Let her arise), [Hebrew Name] bat (daughter of) [Father's Hebrew name] [Ha Kohen (the Kohen) / Ha Levi (the Levite)] (the name of the Aliyah in Hebrew)." In some egalitarian communities, the mother's Hebrew name is added along with the father's, or both parents are included in the case of same sex parents). These aliyot are followed by half kaddish. When the Torah is read in the afternoon, kaddish is not recited at this point, but rather after the Torah has been returned to the Ark.

After the reading, if the Torah is not in a wooden case, the Golel ("roller") performs Gelila ("rolling up"), then binds the Torah with a sash and replaces the Torah's cover. This honor is sometimes given to a child under Bar Mitzvah age.

On days when a haftarah is read (see Haftarah below), there is a final aliyah after the kaddish, called maftir. The person called to that aliyah, as well, is known as "the maftir." On holidays, maftir is read from the Torah verses describing the sacrifices brought in the Temple in Jerusalem on that particular holiday. In progressive synagogues alternative readings are read. On Saturday, the maftir is a repetition of the last few verses of the parsha. When the Torah is read on the afternoon of a fast day (and on Yom Kippur), the third aliyah is considered the maftir, and is followed immediately by the haftarah.

On Saturday and holiday mornings, as well as on Tisha B'av in the morning (in many communities), the afternoons of fast days (in many communities) and Yom Kippur, the Torah reading concludes with the haftarah – a reading from one of the Books of Prophets. The haftarah usually relates in some way to either the Torah reading of that day, a theme of the holiday, or the time of year.

The Torah scroll is then put back in its ark to the accompaniment of specific prayers. The Chazzan takes the Torah scroll in his right arm and recites "Let them praise the name of HaShem, for his name alone will have been exalted." The congregation then responds with Psalm 148, verses 13–14.

The cycle of weekly readings is fixed. Because the Hebrew calendar varies from year to year, two readings are sometimes combined so that the entire Pentateuch is read over the course of a year.

On Shabbat mornings, the weekly Torah portion (parashah) is read. It is divided into seven or more aliyot (see above for more on aliyot).

On Jewish holidays, the reading relates to the day. For example, on Passover the congregation reads various sections of the Pentateuch that relate to that holiday.

When multiple special occasions occur at the same time, there is a standard order of precedence. Generally speaking, when major Jewish holidays occur on Shabbat the holiday portion is read, although divided into the seven portions for Shabbat rather than the number appropriate for the holiday — there is a special reading for when Shabbat coincides with the Chol HaMoed (intermediate days) of Passover or Sukkot. However, when Shabbat coincides with minor holidays, such as Rosh Chodesh (New month) or Hanukkah, the regular reading for Shabbat is read, plus an additional reading (maftir) relevant to the occasion. The additional reading is read from a second scroll if available. On rare occasions, such as when a Rosh Chodesh falls on a Shabbat that also commemorates another occasion, such as Hanukkah or when one of the four special additional readings read prior to Passover, there are two additional readings and three scrolls (if available) are read.

On Simchat Torah , the order of weekly readings is completed, and the day is celebrated with various customs involving the Torah. In many communities, the Torah is read at night – a unique occurrence, preceded by seven rounds of song and dance (hakafot, sing. hakafah; some communities have hakafot without subsequently reading the Torah.) During the hakafot, most or all of the synagogue's Torah scrolls are removed from the Holy Ark, and carried around the Bimah by members of the congregation. On the day of Simchat Torah (in Judaism, day follows night), some communities repeat the seven rounds of song and dance to varying degrees, while in others the Torah scrolls are only carried around the Bimah (seven times) symbolically. Afterwards, many communities have the custom of calling every member of the congregation for an aliyah, which is accomplished by repeatedly re reading the day's five aliyot. The process is often expedited by splitting the congregants into multiple rooms, to each of which a Torah is brought for the reading. Following the regular aliyot, the honor of Hatan Torah ("Groom of the Torah") is given to a distinguished member of the congregation, who is called for an aliyah in which the remaining verses of the Torah are read, to complete that year's reading. Another member of the congregation is honored with Hatan Bereishit ("Groom of Genesis"), and receives an aliyah in which the first verses of the Torah, containing the creation account of Genesis, are read (a second copy of the Torah is usually used, so that the first need not be rolled all the way to the beginning while the congregants wait). Afterwards, the services proceed in the usual manner, with the maftir and haftarah for Simchat Torah.

The Talmud states that "anyone can be called up to read from the Torah, even a minor and even a woman, but our sages taught that we do not call a woman on account of Kevod Hatzibur" (the dignity of the congregation; Megillah 23a). This statement is mirrored in the Shulchan Aruch, Orach Hayim 282:3. Based on this in most Orthodox congregations, only men are called to the Torah. This term is interpreted in numerous ways by various sources. It would slight the community because it would appear to others that the men in the community were not well educated enough to read from the Torah because it was assumed that a community would not have a woman read from the Torah if there were men who could do so. It imposes unnecessary bother on the congregation, or that disturbs the seriousness and propriety of the synagogue service. In the time of the Talmud and Shulchan Aruch, women were widely considered second class members of society, and therefore women were not worthy representatives of the community.

Mendel Shapiro and Daniel Sperber permit women to participate in regular Torah reading on Shabbat, in services known as "partnership minyanim". This innovation is not accepted in Orthodox communities, including almost all Modern Orthodox communities. Prominent Modern Orthodox posqim, including Hershel Schachter, Mordechai Willig, Nisson Alpert, and others have ruled that this practice is not permitted. A small number of Modern Orthodox congregations have added all female prayer groups, where women are permitted to read the Torah to an audience of women, though without blessings, aliyot, or associated liturgy. The Chief Rabbi of the Commonwealth, Rabbi Ephraim Mirvis stated that women were not permitted to read from the Torah in the United Synagogues.

Most but not all Conservative congregations permit women to have an aliyah for at least part of the reading. Many Conservative congregations, and nearly all Reform, Reconstructionist, and Renewal congregations, practice complete gender egalitarianism.