Chera dynasty

300s BCE–1100s CE dynasty in ancient South India

The Chera dynasty (or Cēra, ), was a Sangam age Tamil dynasty who unified various regions of the western coast and western ghats in southern India to form the early Chera empire. The dynasty, known as one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam alongside the Chola and Pandya, has been documented as early as the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE. Their governance extended over diverse territories until the 12th century CE. The Chera country was geographically well placed to profit from maritime trade via the extensive Indian Ocean networks. Exchange of spices, especially black pepper, with Middle Eastern and Graeco Roman merchants are attested in several sources. The Cheras of the early historical period (c. second century BCE – c. third century CE) are known to have had their original centre at Kuttanad in Kerala, and harbours at Muchiri (Muziris) and Thondi (Tyndis) on the Indian Ocean coast (Kerala) and Kongunadu. They governed the area of Malabar Coast between Alappuzha in the south to Kasaragod in the north. The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during the Sangam period between c. 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap, the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu. However the southern region of the present day Kerala state (The coastal belt between Thiruvananthapuram and southern Alappuzha) was under Ay dynasty, who was more related to the Pandya dynasty of Madurai. The early historic pre Pallava polities are often described as a "kinship based redistributive economies" largely shaped by "pastoral cum agrarian subsistence" and "predatory politics". Old Tamil Brahmi cave label inscriptions, describe Ilam Kadungo, son of Perum Kadungo, and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral of the Irumporai clan. Inscribed portrait coins with Brahmi legends give a number of Chera names, with the Chera symbols of the bow and the arrow depicted in the reverse. The anthologies of early Sangham texts are a major source of information about the early Cheras. Cenguttuvan, or the good Chera, is famous for the traditions surrounding Kannaki, the principal female character of the Sangam epic poem Cilappatikaram. After the end of the early historical period, around the 3rd 5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Cheras' power declined considerably. Cheras of the Kongu country are known to have controlled eastern Kerala and only a few kilometres of current western Tamil Nadu in the early medieval period. Present day central Kerala and Kongu Cheras detached around 8th–9th century CE to form the Chera Perumal kingdom and Kongu Chera kingdom (c. 9th–12th century CE). The exact nature of the relationships between the various branches of Chera rulers are unclear. After this, the present day parts of Kerala and Kongunadu became autonomous. Some of the major dynasties of medieval south India Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya, Rashtrakuta, and Chola seem to have conquered the Kongu Chera country. Kongu Cheras appear to have been absorbed into the Pandya political system by 10th/11th century CE. Even after the dissolution of the Perumal kingdom, royal inscriptions and temple grants, especially from outside Kerala proper, continued to refer the country and the people as the "Cheras or Keralas". The rulers of Venad (the Venad Cheras or the "Kulasekharas"), based out of the port of Kollam in south Kerala, claimed their ancestry from the Perumals. Cheranad was also the name of an erstwhile province in the kingdom of Zamorin of Calicut, which had included parts of present day Tirurangadi and Tirur Taluks of Malappuram district in it. Later it became a Taluk of Malabar District, when Malabar came under the British Raj. The headquarters of Cheranad Taluk was the town of Tirurangadi. Recent archaeological discoveries increasingly confirm Karur as a political, economic and cultural centre of ancient south India. Excavations at Karur yielded huge quantities of copper coins with Chera symbols such as the bow and arrow, Roman amphorae and Roman coins. An ancient route, from the harbours in Kerala (such as Muchiri or Thondi) through the Palghat Gap to Karur in interior Tamil Nadu can be traced with the help of archaeological evidence. Historians are yet to precisely locate Muziris, known in Tamil as "Muchiri", a base of the Chera rulers. Archaeological excavations at Pattanam (near Cochin) suggest a strong case of identification with the location. Roman coins have over a period of time been discovered in large numbers from central Kerala and the Coimbatore Karur region (from locations such as Kottayam Kannur, Valluvally, Iyyal, Vellalur and Kattankanni). Bronze dies for minting punch marked coins were discovered from a riverbed in Karur. Other discoveries include a coin with a portrait and the Brahmi legend "Mak kotai" above it and another one with a portrait and the legend "Kuttuvan Kotai" above it. Both impure silver coins are tentatively dated to c. 1st century CE or a little later. The reverse side of both coins are blank. Perum chera irumporai along with fourteen chieftains attacked kamur but perum chera irumporai was impressed with Kaluvuls resistance in battle field and let him rule kamur and accepted friendship from him. Some of the velirs under Kaluvul joined the chera after the defeat. Uthiyan Cheral Athan is generally considered as the earliest known ruler of the Chera family from the Sangam texts (and the possible hero of the lost first decade of Pathitrupattu). Uthiyan Cheral was also known as "Vanavaramban" (Purananuru). His headquarters were at Kuzhumur near Kuttanad(Akananuru). He is described as the Chera ruler who prepared food ("the Perum Chotru") for Pandavas and the Kauravas at the Kurukshetra War (Purananuru and Akananuru). He Married Nallini, daughter of Veliyan Venman, and was the father of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan (Pathitrupattu (II)). Uthiyan Cheral Athan is probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola Karikala at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, the Chera was wounded on the back by the Chola ruler Karikala. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation. As the name Pathitrupattu indicates, they were ten texts, each consisting a decade of lyrics; but of these two have not till now been discovered. + Cells table centred
Cheras from Pathitrupattu Decade of Pathitrupattu Chera Relation Bard NotesIIImayavaramban Nedum Cheral AthanSon of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (by Veliyan's daughter Nallini)Kannanar Nedum Cheral Athan was also known as "Imayavaramban". He is praised for having subdued "seven crowned kings" to achieve the title of adhiraja. Kannanar also lauds the Chera for conquering enemies from Kumari to the Himalayas (and carving the Chera bow emblem on the Himalayas). Nedum Cheral Athan, famous for his hospitality, gifted Kannanar with a part of Umbar Kattu. The greatest of his enemies were the Kadambus (possibly Kadambas) whom he defeated in battles. Nedum Cheral Athan is said to have conquered an island, which had the kadambu tree as its guardian, by crossing the ocean. Poet Mamular also sings of his conquest of Mantai. He also punished and extracted ransom from the Yavanas. Chola Neytalankanal Ilam Set Chenni captured Pamalur, which belonged to the Chera Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan. The Chera fought the Cholas at Por (and both combatants died in the battle) III Palyanai Sel Kelu KuttuvanSon of Uthiyan Cheral Athan (younger brother of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan)Palai
KauthamanarCredited as the conqueror of "Konkar Nadu". Described as lord of Puzhi Nadu and the Cheruppu and Aiyirai Mountains. Headquarters was located on the mouth river Periyar. IV Kalankai Kanni Narmudi CheralSon of Imayavaramban. Kappiyattukku KappiyanarNarmudi Cheral led an expedition against Nedumidal Anji (identified with the Adigaiman/Satyaputra of Tagadur). Initially the Chera was defeated by Nannan of Ezhimala in the battle of Pazhi, later defeated and killed Nannan in the battle of Vakai Perum Turai. Performed his coronation using holy water from both the western and eastern oceans (brought by a relay of elephants). Also known as "Vanavaramban". VKadal Pirakottiya ChenguttuvanSon of Nedum Cheral AthanParanarChenguttuvan is identified with "Kadal Pirakottiya" Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan. Chenguttuvan was a son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan. Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan is often identified with the legendary "Chenguttuvan Chera", the most illustrious ruler of the Early Cheras. Under his reign, the Chera territory extended from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai (Kerala) on the western coast. The wife of Chenguttuvan was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief). In the early years of his rule, the Kuttuvan successfully intervened in a succession dispute in the Chola territory and established his relative Nalam Killi on the Chola throne. The rivals of Killi were defeated in the battle of Nerivayil, Uraiyur. The Kadambas are described as the arch enemies of the Chera ruler. Kuttuvan was able to defeat them in the battle of Idumbil, Valayur (Viyalur). The "fort" of Kodukur in which the Kadamba warriors took shelter was stormed. Later the Kadambas (helped by the Yavanas) attacked Kuttuvan by sea, but the Chera ruler destroyed their fleet. Kuttuvan is said to have defeated the Kongu people and a warrior called Mogur Mannan (one of the Chera's allies was Arugai, an enemy of the Mogurs). According to Chilapathikaram, Chenguttuvan led his army to north India to get the sacred stone from the Himalayas to sculpt the idol of goddess Pattini. VI Adu Kottu Pattu Cheral AthanSuccessor of Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan(son of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral Athan and brother of Narmudi Cheral)Kakkai Padiniyar Nachellaiyar (poetess)Probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola Karikala at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, Uthiyan Cheral was wounded on the back by Karikala. Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation. Controlled the port of Naravu. VIISelva Kadumko Valia AthanSon of Anthuvan CheralKapilarSelvakadumko Valia Athan controlled Pandar and Kodumanam (Kodumanal). He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheral Athan. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas. Father of Perum Cheral Irumporai. Died at Chikkar Palli. Identified with Mantharan Poraiyan Kadumko. Pasum Put Poraiyan and Perumput Poraiyan. He is sometimes identified as the Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned in the Aranattar malai inscription of Pugalur (c. 2nd century CE). VIIITagadur Erinta Perum Cheral IrumporaiArichil Kizhar"Tagadur Erinta" Perum Cheral Irumporai defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas, Cholas and that of the chief of Tagadur Adigaman Ezhni at Tagadur. He is also called "the lord of Puzhinadu and "the lord of Kollimalai" and "the lord of [Poom]Puhar". Puhar was the Chola headquarters. Perum Cheral Irumporai also annexed the territories of a minor Idayar chief called Kazhuval (Kazhuvul). Addressed as "Kodai Marba". Father of Illam Cheral Irumporai. IX"Kudakko" Illam Cheral IrumporaiPerunkundur KizharIllam Cheral Irumporai defeated Perum Chola, Ilam Pazhaiyan Maran and Vicchi, and destroyed "five forts". Lord of Tondi, "Kongar Nadu", "Kuttuvar Nadu", and "Puzhi Nadu". Described as the descendant of Nedum Cheral Athan. The following Cheras are knowns from Purananuru collection (some of the names are re duplications). Karuvur Eriya Ol val Ko Perum Cheral Irumporai Ruled of Karuvur. Praised by Nariveruttalaiyar. Kadungo Valia Athan
Palai Padiya Perum Kadumko
Antuvan Cheral Irumporai father of Selva Kadumko Valia Athan (VII decade). Contemporary to Chola Mudittalai Ko Perunar Killi (whose elephant famously wandered to Karuvur). "Yanaikatchai" Mantaram Cheral Irumporai ruled from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai on the western coast. He defeated his enemies in a battle at Vilamkil. The famous Pandya ruler Nedum Chezhian (early 3rd century CE) captured Mantaran Cheral as a prisoner. However, he managed to escape and regain the lost territories. Ko Kodai Marban
Takadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai
Kuttuvan Kodai
Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan
Perum Cheral Athan
Kanaikkal Irumporai is said to have defeated a chief called Muvan and imprisoned him. The Chera then brutally pulled out the teeth of the prisoner and planted them on the gates of the city of Thondi. Upon capture by the Chola ruler Sengannan, Kanaikkal committed suicide by starvation. Kudakko Cheral Irumporai
Kottambalattu Tunchiya Makkodai probably identical with Kottambalattu Tunchiya Cheraman in Akananuru (168)
Vanchan
Kadalottiya Vel Kelu Kuttuvan
Man Venko a friend of the Pandya Ugra Peruvaluti and the Chola Rajasuyam Vetta Perunar Killi.

After the 5th centuryCE, the Chera family's political prestige and influence declined considerably. Comparatively little is known about Cheras during this period. Cheras of Kongu country (Karur) initially appear as the rulers of western Tamil Nadu and central Kerala. There was a domination of present day Kerala regions of the ancient Chera country by the Kongu Cheras/Keralas (probably via some form of viceregal rule). The family claimed that they were descended from the Cheras who flourished in pre Pallava (early historic) south India. An inscription of Kadamba king Vishnu Varma, dated 5th or 6th century, can be found at Edakkal cave in Wayanad. An early historic Chera graffiti containing the phrase "Kadummi Putra Chera" was also discovered from the cave. After this, the Malabar and Kerala parts became autonomous of Karur. The Perumal kingdom derived most of its wealth from maritime trade relations (the spice trade) with the Middle East. The port of Kollam, in the kingdom, was a major point in overseas India trade to the West and the East Asia. Political units known as "nadus", controlled by powerful hereditary chiefs or by households, occupied central importance in the structuring of the Chera Perumal state. The rulers of the nadus usually acted with the help of a Tamil military retinue. The prominent nadus continued to exist even after the end of the Chera rule during the beginning of the 12th century. Nambudiri Brahmin settlements of agriculturally rich areas (fertile wet land) were another major source of support to the kingdom. quote = "A naval campaign led to the conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe." The Chera Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly or hostile relations with the Cholas and the Pandyas. The kingdom was attacked, and eventually forced into submission, by the Cholas in the early 11th century CE (in order to break the monopoly of trade with the Middle East). When the Perumal kingdom was eventually dissolved in the 12th century most of its autonomous chiefdoms became independent.

The extent and nature of state formation of the Chera kingdoms, from the ancient period to early modern period, cannot be interpreted either in a linear or in a monochromatic way. Each ruling family had its own political prestige and influence in southern India over their life spans. The extent of political formation in pre Pallava south India (before c. third century CE) was a matter of considerable debate among historians. Although earlier scholars visualised early historic south Indian polities as full fledged kingdoms, some of the recent studies rule out the possibility of state formation. According to historian Rajan Gurukkal, ancient south India was a combination of several "unevenly evolved and kinship based redistributive economies of chiefdoms". These polities were structured by the dominance of "agro pastoral means of subsistence and predatory politics". Kesavan Veluthat, another prominent historian of south India, uses the term "chief" and "chiefdom" for the Chera ruler and Chera polity of early historic south India respectively. Reaching conclusions based on the early Tamil poems and archaeological evidences is another topic of disagreement. It is assumed that the institution of sabha in south Indian villages, for local administration, was first surfaced during the early historic period.

The early Chera economy can be described as a predominantly "pastoral cum agrarian" based system. The emphasis on agriculture increased with time, and provided the base for larger economic change. The early historic south India (c. second century BCE c. third century CE) can be described as a "semi tribal political economy". In a 2013 paper, historian Rajan Gurukkal describes ancient south India as a collection of "unevenly evolved and kinship based redistributive economies."

Exchange relations with the merchants from Graeco Roman world, the "Yavanas", and with north India provided considerable economic momentum for the Chera chiefdom. Indian Ocean exchange was the major economic activity. There is some difference of opinion with regard to the nature of the "spice trade" in ancient Chera country. It is disputed whether this "trade" with the Mediterranean world was managed on equal terms by the Tamil merchants, in view of the existence of apparently unequal political institutions in south India. Some of the more recent studies point out that the "trade" was an exchange of "serious imbalance", because of its being between the Roman Empire and South India with uneven chiefdoms. The geographical advantages, like the favourable Monsoon winds which carried ships directly from the Arabia to south India as well as the abundance of exotic spices in the interior Ghat mountains (and the presence of a large number of rivers connecting the Ghats with the Arabian Sea) combined to make the Cheras a major power in ancient southern India. Spice exchange with Middle Eastern and Mediterranean (Graeco Roman) navigators can be traced back to before the Common Era and was substantially consolidated in the early years of the Common Era. In the first century CE, the Romans conquered Egypt, which probably helped them to establish dominance in the Indian Ocean spice trade. The earliest Graeco Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by Pliny the Elder in the 1st century CE, in Periplus Maris Erythraei of the 1st century CE, and by Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE. The Periplus Maris Erythraei portrays the "trade" in the territory of Keprobotras in detail. Muziris was the most important centre in the Malabar Coast, which according to the Periplus, "abounded with large ships of Romans, Arabs and Greeks". Bulk spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems were "exported" from the Chera country to the Middle East and Mediterranean kingdoms. It is known that the Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange for black pepper. This is testified by the Roman coin hoards that have been found in various parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Pliny the Elder, in the 1st century CE, laments the drain of Roman gold into India and China for luxuries such as spices, silk and muslin. The spice trade across the Indian Ocean dwindled with the decline of the Roman empire in the 3rd 4th centuries CE. With the exit of the Mediterranean from the spice trade, their space was picked up by the Chinese and Arab navigators.

The famous damascus blades resulted from the unique properties of wootz crucible steel from medieval south India and Sri Lanka. There are several ancient Tamil, Greek, Chinese and Roman literary references to high carbon Indian steel. The crucible steel production process started in the 6th century BCE at Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu, Golconda in Telangana, Karnataka and Sri Lanka. This steel was termed "the finest steel in the world" by the Romans who referred to it by the term "Seric". It was exported to Rome, Egypt, China and the Middle East by 500 BCE. The steel was exported as cakes of steely iron that came to be known as "Wootz". The method was to heat black magnetite ore in the presence of carbon in a sealed clay crucible inside a charcoal furnace to completely remove slag. An alternative was to smelt the ore first to give wrought iron, then heat and hammer it to remove slag. The carbon source was bamboo and leaves from plants such as Avārai. The Chinese and locals in Sri Lanka adopted the production methods of creating wootz steel from the Cheras by the 5th century BCE. In Sri Lanka, this early steel making method employed a unique wind furnace, driven by the monsoon winds. Production sites from antiquity have emerged, in places such as Anuradhapura, Tissamaharama and Samanalawewa, as well as imported artifacts of ancient iron and steel from Kodumanal. A 200 BCE Tamil trade guild in Tissamaharama, in the South East of Sri Lanka, brought with them some of the oldest iron and steel artifacts and production processes to the island from the classical period.

In general, early Tamil texts reflect the southern Indian cultural tradition as well as elements of the northern Indian cultural tradition, which by now was beginning to come into contact with southern India. It is logical to conclude that most of the Chera population followed native Dravidian religions. Religious practice might have consisted predominantly of conducting sacrifices to various gods, such as to the pre eminent god Murugan. The worship of departed heroes was a common practice in the Chera territory, along with tree worship and other kinds of ancestor worship. The war goddess Korravai was propitiated with elaborate offerings of meat and toddy. It is theorised that Kottava was assimilated into the present day form of the goddess Durga. It is thought that the first wave of Brahmin migration came to the Chera territory around the 3rd century BCE with or behind the Jain and Buddhist missionaries. It was only in the 8th century CE that the Aryanisation of the old Chera country reached its organised form. Though the vast majority of the population followed native practices, a small percentage of the population, mainly migrants, followed Jainism, Buddhism and Brahmanism. Populations of Jews and Christians were also known to have lived in Kerala. Early Tamil texts do make a number of references to social stratification, as expressed by use of the word kudi ("group") to denote "caste". A striking feature of the social life of the early historic period (c. second century BCE c. third century CE) is the high status accorded to women. Agriculture and pastoralism were the primary occupations of the people. Various agricultural occupations such as harvesting, threshing and drying are described in the early Tamil texts. Poets and musicians were held in high regard in society. Early Tamil texts are full of references about the lavish patronage extended to court poets. There were professional poets and poetesses who composed texts praising their patrons and were generously rewarded for this.