Введение
F блок химических элементов
The actinide ('/æ//k//t//ᵻ//n//aɪ//d///) or actinoid ('/æ//k//t//ᵻ//n//ɔɪ//d///) series encompasses at least the 14 metallic chemical elements in the 5f series, with atomic numbers from 89 to 102, actinium through nobelium. (Number 103, lawrencium, is sometimes also included despite being part of the 6d transition series.) The actinide series derives its name from the first element in the series, actinium. The informal chemical symbol An is used in general discussions of actinide chemistry to refer to any actinide. The 1985 IUPAC Red Book recommends that actinoid be used rather than actinide, since the suffix ide normally indicates a negative ion. However, owing to widespread current use, actinide is still allowed. Since actinoid literally means actinium like (cf. humanoid or android), it has been argued for semantic reasons that actinium cannot logically be an actinoid, but IUPAC acknowledges its inclusion based on common usage. All the actinides are f block elements. Lawrencium is sometimes considered one as well, despite being a d block element and a transition metal. The series mostly corresponds to the filling of the 5f electron shell, although as isolated atoms in the ground state many have anomalous configurations involving the filling of the 6d shell due to interelectronic repulsion. In comparison with the lanthanides, also mostly f block elements, the actinides show much more variable valence. They all have very large atomic and ionic radii and exhibit an unusually large range of physical properties. While actinium and the late actinides (from curium onwards) behave similarly to the lanthanides, the elements thorium, protactinium, and uranium are much more similar to transition metals in their chemistry, with neptunium, plutonium, and americium occupying an intermediate position. All actinides are radioactive and release energy upon radioactive decay; naturally occurring uranium and thorium, and synthetically produced plutonium are the most abundant actinides on Earth. These have been used in nuclear reactors, and uranium and plutonium are critical elements of nuclear weapons. Uranium and thorium also have diverse current or historical uses, and americium is used in the ionization chambers of most modern smoke detectors. Of the actinides, primordial thorium and uranium occur naturally in substantial quantities. The radioactive decay of uranium produces transient amounts of actinium and protactinium, and atoms of neptunium and plutonium are occasionally produced from transmutation reactions in uranium ores. The other actinides are purely synthetic elements. Nuclear weapons tests have released at least six actinides heavier than plutonium into the environment; analysis of debris from a 1952 hydrogen bomb explosion showed the presence of americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium and fermium. In presentations of the periodic table, the f block elements are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table. ! Element
!Year
!Method
|
| Neptunium
| align=center| 1940
| Bombarding 238U with neutrons
|
| Plutonium
| align=center| 1941
| Bombarding 238U with deuterons
|
| Americium
| align=center| 1944
| Bombarding 239Pu with neutrons
|
| Curium
| align=center| 1944
| Bombarding 239Pu with α particles
|
| Berkelium
| align=center| 1949
| Bombarding 241Am with α particles
|
| Californium
| align=center| 1950
| Bombarding 242Cm with α particles
|
| Einsteinium
| align=center| 1952
| As a product of nuclear explosion
|
| Fermium
| align=center| 1952
| As a product of nuclear explosion
|
| Mendelevium
| align=center| 1955
| Bombarding 253Es with α particles
|
| Nobelium
| align=center| 1965
| Bombarding 243Am with 15N or 238U with 22Ne
|
| Lawrencium
| align=center| 1961–1971
| Bombarding 252Cf with 10B or 11Band of 243Am with 18O
|}
Like the lanthanides, the actinides form a family of elements with similar properties. Within the actinides, there are two overlapping groups: transuranium elements, which follow uranium in the periodic table; and transplutonium elements, which follow plutonium. Compared to the lanthanides, which (except for promethium) are found in nature in appreciable quantities, most actinides are rare. Most do not occur in nature, and of those that do, only thorium and uranium do so in more than trace quantities. The most abundant or easily synthesized actinides are uranium and thorium, followed by plutonium, americium, actinium, protactinium, neptunium, and curium. The existence of transuranium elements was suggested in 1934 by Enrico Fermi, based on his experiments. However, even though four actinides were known by that time, it was not yet understood that they formed a family similar to lanthanides. The prevailing view that dominated early research into transuranics was that they were regular elements in the 7th period, with thorium, protactinium and uranium corresponding to 6th period hafnium, tantalum and tungsten, respectively. Synthesis of transuranics gradually undermined this point of view. By 1944, an observation that curium failed to exhibit oxidation states above 4 (whereas its supposed 6th period homolog, platinum, can reach oxidation state of 6) prompted Glenn Seaborg to formulate an "actinide hypothesis". Studies of known actinides and discoveries of further transuranic elements provided more data in support of this position, but the phrase "actinide hypothesis" (the implication being that a "hypothesis" is something that has not been decisively proven) remained in active use by scientists through the late 1950s. At present, there are two major methods of producing isotopes of transplutonium elements: (1) irradiation of the lighter elements with neutrons; (2) irradiation with accelerated charged particles. The first method is more important for applications, as only neutron irradiation using nuclear reactors allows the production of sizeable amounts of synthetic actinides; however, it is limited to relatively light elements. The advantage of the second method is that elements heavier than plutonium, as well as neutron deficient isotopes, can be obtained, which are not formed during neutron irradiation. In 1962–1966, there were attempts in the United States to produce transplutonium isotopes using a series of six underground nuclear explosions. Small samples of rock were extracted from the blast area immediately after the test to study the explosion products, but no isotopes with mass number greater than 257 could be detected, despite predictions that such isotopes would have relatively long half lives of α decay. This non observation was attributed to spontaneous fission owing to the large speed of the products and to other decay channels, such as neutron emission and nuclear fission.
Серия актинидов (актинид) или актиноидов (актиноид) включает в себя по меньшей мере 14 металлических химических элементов серии 5f с атомными номерами от 89 до 102, от актиния до нобелия. (Номер 103, лоуренсий, иногда также включается, несмотря на то, что он относится к 6d переходному ряду.) Актинидный ряд получил свое название от первого элемента в ряду, актиния. Неформальный химический символ An используется в общих обсуждениях химии актинидов для обозначения любого актинида. В Красной книге IUPAC 1985 года рекомендуется использовать термин «актиноид» вместо «актинид», поскольку суффикс «-ид» обычно указывает на отрицательный ион. Однако, в связи с широким распространением термина «актинид», его использование все еще допускается. Поскольку «актиноид» буквально означает «подобный актинию» (ср. гуманоид или андроид), по семантическим соображениям утверждается, что актиний логически не может быть актиноидом, но IUPAC признает его включение на основе общепринятого использования. Все актиниды являются элементами f-блока. Лоуренций иногда также рассматривается как актиний, несмотря на то, что он является элементом d-блока и переходным металлом. Серия в основном соответствует заполнению 5f электронной оболочки, хотя изолированные атомы в основном состоянии часто имеют аномальные конфигурации, связанные с заполнением 6d оболочки из-за межэлектронного отталкивания. По сравнению с лантаноидами, которые также в основном являются элементами f-блока, актиниды проявляют гораздо более переменную валентность. Все они имеют очень большие атомные и ионные радиусы и демонстрируют необычно широкий диапазон физических свойств. В то время как актиний и поздние актиниды (начиная с курия) ведут себя аналогично лантаноидам, элементы торий, протактиний и уран гораздо больше похожи на переходные металлы по своим химическим свойствам, при этом нептуний, плутоний и америций занимают промежуточное положение. Все актиниды радиоактивны и выделяют энергию при радиоактивном распаде; природный уран и торий, а также синтетически полученный плутоний являются наиболее распространенными актинидами на Земле. Они используются в ядерных реакторах, а уран и плутоний являются ключевыми элементами ядерного оружия. Уран и торий также имеют разнообразные текущие или исторические применения, а америций используется в ионизационных камерах большинства современных дымовых извещателей. Из актинидов, первичный торий и уран встречаются в природе в значительных количествах. Радиоактивный распад урана производит временные количества актиния и протактиния, а атомы нептуния и плутония иногда образуются в результате реакций трансмутации в урановых рудах. Другие актиниды являются чисто синтетическими элементами. Испытания ядерного оружия привели к выбросу в окружающую среду по меньшей мере шести актинидов, тяжелее плутония; анализ обломков от взрыва водородной бомбы 1952 года показал наличие америция, курия, беркелия, калифорния, эйнштейна и фермия. На схематических изображениях периодической таблицы элементы f-блока обычно отображаются в виде двух дополнительных рядов, расположенных под основным телом таблицы.
The actinide ('/æ//k//t//ᵻ//n//aɪ//d///) or actinoid ('/æ//k//t//ᵻ//n//ɔɪ//d///) series encompasses at least the 14 metallic chemical elements in the 5f series, with atomic numbers from 89 to 102, actinium through nobelium. (Number 103, lawrencium, is sometimes also included despite being part of the 6d transition series.) The actinide series derives its name from the first element in the series, actinium. The informal chemical symbol An is used in general discussions of actinide chemistry to refer to any actinide. The 1985 IUPAC Red Book recommends that actinoid be used rather than actinide, since the suffix ide normally indicates a negative ion. However, owing to widespread current use, actinide is still allowed. Since actinoid literally means actinium like (cf. humanoid or android), it has been argued for semantic reasons that actinium cannot logically be an actinoid, but IUPAC acknowledges its inclusion based on common usage. All the actinides are f block elements. Lawrencium is sometimes considered one as well, despite being a d block element and a transition metal. The series mostly corresponds to the filling of the 5f electron shell, although as isolated atoms in the ground state many have anomalous configurations involving the filling of the 6d shell due to interelectronic repulsion. In comparison with the lanthanides, also mostly f block elements, the actinides show much more variable valence. They all have very large atomic and ionic radii and exhibit an unusually large range of physical properties. While actinium and the late actinides (from curium onwards) behave similarly to the lanthanides, the elements thorium, protactinium, and uranium are much more similar to transition metals in their chemistry, with neptunium, plutonium, and americium occupying an intermediate position. All actinides are radioactive and release energy upon radioactive decay; naturally occurring uranium and thorium, and synthetically produced plutonium are the most abundant actinides on Earth. These have been used in nuclear reactors, and uranium and plutonium are critical elements of nuclear weapons. Uranium and thorium also have diverse current or historical uses, and americium is used in the ionization chambers of most modern smoke detectors. Of the actinides, primordial thorium and uranium occur naturally in substantial quantities. The radioactive decay of uranium produces transient amounts of actinium and protactinium, and atoms of neptunium and plutonium are occasionally produced from transmutation reactions in uranium ores. The other actinides are purely synthetic elements. Nuclear weapons tests have released at least six actinides heavier than plutonium into the environment; analysis of debris from a 1952 hydrogen bomb explosion showed the presence of americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium and fermium. In presentations of the periodic table, the f block elements are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table. ! Element
!Year
!Method
|
| Neptunium
| align=center| 1940
| Bombarding 238U with neutrons
|
| Plutonium
| align=center| 1941
| Bombarding 238U with deuterons
|
| Americium
| align=center| 1944
| Bombarding 239Pu with neutrons
|
| Curium
| align=center| 1944
| Bombarding 239Pu with α particles
|
| Berkelium
| align=center| 1949
| Bombarding 241Am with α particles
|
| Californium
| align=center| 1950
| Bombarding 242Cm with α particles
|
| Einsteinium
| align=center| 1952
| As a product of nuclear explosion
|
| Fermium
| align=center| 1952
| As a product of nuclear explosion
|
| Mendelevium
| align=center| 1955
| Bombarding 253Es with α particles
|
| Nobelium
| align=center| 1965
| Bombarding 243Am with 15N or 238U with 22Ne
|
| Lawrencium
| align=center| 1961–1971
| Bombarding 252Cf with 10B or 11Band of 243Am with 18O
|}
Like the lanthanides, the actinides form a family of elements with similar properties. Within the actinides, there are two overlapping groups: transuranium elements, which follow uranium in the periodic table; and transplutonium elements, which follow plutonium. Compared to the lanthanides, which (except for promethium) are found in nature in appreciable quantities, most actinides are rare. Most do not occur in nature, and of those that do, only thorium and uranium do so in more than trace quantities. The most abundant or easily synthesized actinides are uranium and thorium, followed by plutonium, americium, actinium, protactinium, neptunium, and curium. The existence of transuranium elements was suggested in 1934 by Enrico Fermi, based on his experiments. However, even though four actinides were known by that time, it was not yet understood that they formed a family similar to lanthanides. The prevailing view that dominated early research into transuranics was that they were regular elements in the 7th period, with thorium, protactinium and uranium corresponding to 6th period hafnium, tantalum and tungsten, respectively. Synthesis of transuranics gradually undermined this point of view. By 1944, an observation that curium failed to exhibit oxidation states above 4 (whereas its supposed 6th period homolog, platinum, can reach oxidation state of 6) prompted Glenn Seaborg to formulate an "actinide hypothesis". Studies of known actinides and discoveries of further transuranic elements provided more data in support of this position, but the phrase "actinide hypothesis" (the implication being that a "hypothesis" is something that has not been decisively proven) remained in active use by scientists through the late 1950s. At present, there are two major methods of producing isotopes of transplutonium elements: (1) irradiation of the lighter elements with neutrons; (2) irradiation with accelerated charged particles. The first method is more important for applications, as only neutron irradiation using nuclear reactors allows the production of sizeable amounts of synthetic actinides; however, it is limited to relatively light elements. The advantage of the second method is that elements heavier than plutonium, as well as neutron deficient isotopes, can be obtained, which are not formed during neutron irradiation. In 1962–1966, there were attempts in the United States to produce transplutonium isotopes using a series of six underground nuclear explosions. Small samples of rock were extracted from the blast area immediately after the test to study the explosion products, but no isotopes with mass number greater than 257 could be detected, despite predictions that such isotopes would have relatively long half lives of α decay. This non observation was attributed to spontaneous fission owing to the large speed of the products and to other decay channels, such as neutron emission and nuclear fission.
- Элемент | Год | Метод
|---|---|---|
| Нептуний | 1940 | Бомбардировка <sup>238</sup>U нейтронами |
| Плутоний | 1941 | Бомбардировка <sup>238</sup>U дейтронами |
| Америций | 1944 | Бомбардировка <sup>239</sup>Pu нейтронами |
| Курий | 1944 | Бомбардировка <sup>239</sup>Pu α-частицами |
| Беркелий | 1949 | Бомбардировка <sup>241</sup>Am α-частицами |
| Калифорний | 1950 | Бомбардировка <sup>242</sup>Cm α-частицами |
| Эйнштейний | 1952 | Продукт ядерного взрыва |
| Фермий | 1952 | Продукт ядерного взрыва |
| Менделевий | 1955 | Бомбардировка <sup>253</sup>Es α-частицами |
| Нобелий | 1965 | Бомбардировка <sup>243</sup>Am <sup>15</sup>N или <sup>238</sup>U <sup>22</sup>Ne |
| Лоуренсий | 1961–1971 | Бомбардировка <sup>252</sup>Cf <sup>10</sup>B или <sup>243</sup>Am <sup>18</sup>O |
The actinide ('/æ//k//t//ᵻ//n//aɪ//d///) or actinoid ('/æ//k//t//ᵻ//n//ɔɪ//d///) series encompasses at least the 14 metallic chemical elements in the 5f series, with atomic numbers from 89 to 102, actinium through nobelium. (Number 103, lawrencium, is sometimes also included despite being part of the 6d transition series.) The actinide series derives its name from the first element in the series, actinium. The informal chemical symbol An is used in general discussions of actinide chemistry to refer to any actinide. The 1985 IUPAC Red Book recommends that actinoid be used rather than actinide, since the suffix ide normally indicates a negative ion. However, owing to widespread current use, actinide is still allowed. Since actinoid literally means actinium like (cf. humanoid or android), it has been argued for semantic reasons that actinium cannot logically be an actinoid, but IUPAC acknowledges its inclusion based on common usage. All the actinides are f block elements. Lawrencium is sometimes considered one as well, despite being a d block element and a transition metal. The series mostly corresponds to the filling of the 5f electron shell, although as isolated atoms in the ground state many have anomalous configurations involving the filling of the 6d shell due to interelectronic repulsion. In comparison with the lanthanides, also mostly f block elements, the actinides show much more variable valence. They all have very large atomic and ionic radii and exhibit an unusually large range of physical properties. While actinium and the late actinides (from curium onwards) behave similarly to the lanthanides, the elements thorium, protactinium, and uranium are much more similar to transition metals in their chemistry, with neptunium, plutonium, and americium occupying an intermediate position. All actinides are radioactive and release energy upon radioactive decay; naturally occurring uranium and thorium, and synthetically produced plutonium are the most abundant actinides on Earth. These have been used in nuclear reactors, and uranium and plutonium are critical elements of nuclear weapons. Uranium and thorium also have diverse current or historical uses, and americium is used in the ionization chambers of most modern smoke detectors. Of the actinides, primordial thorium and uranium occur naturally in substantial quantities. The radioactive decay of uranium produces transient amounts of actinium and protactinium, and atoms of neptunium and plutonium are occasionally produced from transmutation reactions in uranium ores. The other actinides are purely synthetic elements. Nuclear weapons tests have released at least six actinides heavier than plutonium into the environment; analysis of debris from a 1952 hydrogen bomb explosion showed the presence of americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium and fermium. In presentations of the periodic table, the f block elements are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table. ! Element
!Year
!Method
|
| Neptunium
| align=center| 1940
| Bombarding 238U with neutrons
|
| Plutonium
| align=center| 1941
| Bombarding 238U with deuterons
|
| Americium
| align=center| 1944
| Bombarding 239Pu with neutrons
|
| Curium
| align=center| 1944
| Bombarding 239Pu with α particles
|
| Berkelium
| align=center| 1949
| Bombarding 241Am with α particles
|
| Californium
| align=center| 1950
| Bombarding 242Cm with α particles
|
| Einsteinium
| align=center| 1952
| As a product of nuclear explosion
|
| Fermium
| align=center| 1952
| As a product of nuclear explosion
|
| Mendelevium
| align=center| 1955
| Bombarding 253Es with α particles
|
| Nobelium
| align=center| 1965
| Bombarding 243Am with 15N or 238U with 22Ne
|
| Lawrencium
| align=center| 1961–1971
| Bombarding 252Cf with 10B or 11Band of 243Am with 18O
|}
Like the lanthanides, the actinides form a family of elements with similar properties. Within the actinides, there are two overlapping groups: transuranium elements, which follow uranium in the periodic table; and transplutonium elements, which follow plutonium. Compared to the lanthanides, which (except for promethium) are found in nature in appreciable quantities, most actinides are rare. Most do not occur in nature, and of those that do, only thorium and uranium do so in more than trace quantities. The most abundant or easily synthesized actinides are uranium and thorium, followed by plutonium, americium, actinium, protactinium, neptunium, and curium. The existence of transuranium elements was suggested in 1934 by Enrico Fermi, based on his experiments. However, even though four actinides were known by that time, it was not yet understood that they formed a family similar to lanthanides. The prevailing view that dominated early research into transuranics was that they were regular elements in the 7th period, with thorium, protactinium and uranium corresponding to 6th period hafnium, tantalum and tungsten, respectively. Synthesis of transuranics gradually undermined this point of view. By 1944, an observation that curium failed to exhibit oxidation states above 4 (whereas its supposed 6th period homolog, platinum, can reach oxidation state of 6) prompted Glenn Seaborg to formulate an "actinide hypothesis". Studies of known actinides and discoveries of further transuranic elements provided more data in support of this position, but the phrase "actinide hypothesis" (the implication being that a "hypothesis" is something that has not been decisively proven) remained in active use by scientists through the late 1950s. At present, there are two major methods of producing isotopes of transplutonium elements: (1) irradiation of the lighter elements with neutrons; (2) irradiation with accelerated charged particles. The first method is more important for applications, as only neutron irradiation using nuclear reactors allows the production of sizeable amounts of synthetic actinides; however, it is limited to relatively light elements. The advantage of the second method is that elements heavier than plutonium, as well as neutron deficient isotopes, can be obtained, which are not formed during neutron irradiation. In 1962–1966, there were attempts in the United States to produce transplutonium isotopes using a series of six underground nuclear explosions. Small samples of rock were extracted from the blast area immediately after the test to study the explosion products, but no isotopes with mass number greater than 257 could be detected, despite predictions that such isotopes would have relatively long half lives of α decay. This non observation was attributed to spontaneous fission owing to the large speed of the products and to other decay channels, such as neutron emission and nuclear fission.
Как и лантаноиды, актиниды образуют семейство элементов со схожими свойствами. Внутри актинидов выделяют две перекрывающиеся группы: трансурановые элементы, которые следуют за ураном в периодической таблице; и трансплутониевые элементы, которые следуют за плутонием. По сравнению с лантаноидами, которые (за исключением прометия) встречаются в природе в заметных количествах, большинство актинидов редки. Большинство из них не встречается в природе, и из тех, что встречаются, только торий и уран присутствуют в количествах, превышающих следовые. Наиболее распространенными или легко синтезируемыми актинидами являются уран и торий, за которыми следуют плутоний, америций, актиний, протактиний, нептуний и курий. Существование трансурановых элементов было предложено в 1934 году Энрико Ферми на основе его экспериментов. Однако, хотя к тому времени было известно четыре актинида, еще не было понято, что они образуют семейство, подобное лантаноидам. Преобладающим взглядом, который доминировал в ранних исследованиях трансурановых элементов, было то, что они являются обычными элементами 7-го периода, при этом торий, протактиний и уран соответствуют гафнию, танталу и вольфраму 6-го периода соответственно. Синтез трансурановых элементов постепенно подорвал эту точку зрения. К 1944 году наблюдение того, что курий не проявляет степеней окисления выше 4 (в то время как его предполагаемый аналог 6-го периода, платина, может достигать степени окисления 6), побудило Гленна Сиборга сформулировать «актинидную гипотезу». Исследования известных актинидов и открытия новых трансурановых элементов предоставили больше данных в поддержку этой позиции, но фраза «актинидная гипотеза» (что подразумевает, что «гипотеза» — это то, что не было окончательно доказано) оставалась в активном использовании учеными до конца 1950-х годов. В настоящее время существует два основных метода получения изотопов трансплутониевых элементов: (1) облучение более легких элементов нейтронами; (2) облучение ускоренными заряженными частицами. Первый метод более важен для практических применений, поскольку только нейтронное облучение с использованием ядерных реакторов позволяет производить значительные количества синтетических актинидов; однако он ограничен относительно легкими элементами. Преимущество второго метода заключается в том, что можно получить элементы тяжелее плутония, а также дефицитные по нейтронам изотопы, которые не образуются при нейтронном облучении. В 1962–1966 годах в Соединенных Штатах предпринимались попытки получить трансплутониевые изотопы с использованием серии шести подземных ядерных взрывов. Непосредственно после испытания извлекались небольшие образцы горных пород для изучения продуктов взрыва, но не было обнаружено изотопов с массовым числом больше 257, несмотря на прогнозы относительно длительного периода полураспада α-распада. Это необнаружение было приписано спонтанному делению из-за высокой скорости продуктов и другим каналам распада, таким как эмиссия нейтронов и ядерное деление.
The actinide ('/æ//k//t//ᵻ//n//aɪ//d///) or actinoid ('/æ//k//t//ᵻ//n//ɔɪ//d///) series encompasses at least the 14 metallic chemical elements in the 5f series, with atomic numbers from 89 to 102, actinium through nobelium. (Number 103, lawrencium, is sometimes also included despite being part of the 6d transition series.) The actinide series derives its name from the first element in the series, actinium. The informal chemical symbol An is used in general discussions of actinide chemistry to refer to any actinide. The 1985 IUPAC Red Book recommends that actinoid be used rather than actinide, since the suffix ide normally indicates a negative ion. However, owing to widespread current use, actinide is still allowed. Since actinoid literally means actinium like (cf. humanoid or android), it has been argued for semantic reasons that actinium cannot logically be an actinoid, but IUPAC acknowledges its inclusion based on common usage. All the actinides are f block elements. Lawrencium is sometimes considered one as well, despite being a d block element and a transition metal. The series mostly corresponds to the filling of the 5f electron shell, although as isolated atoms in the ground state many have anomalous configurations involving the filling of the 6d shell due to interelectronic repulsion. In comparison with the lanthanides, also mostly f block elements, the actinides show much more variable valence. They all have very large atomic and ionic radii and exhibit an unusually large range of physical properties. While actinium and the late actinides (from curium onwards) behave similarly to the lanthanides, the elements thorium, protactinium, and uranium are much more similar to transition metals in their chemistry, with neptunium, plutonium, and americium occupying an intermediate position. All actinides are radioactive and release energy upon radioactive decay; naturally occurring uranium and thorium, and synthetically produced plutonium are the most abundant actinides on Earth. These have been used in nuclear reactors, and uranium and plutonium are critical elements of nuclear weapons. Uranium and thorium also have diverse current or historical uses, and americium is used in the ionization chambers of most modern smoke detectors. Of the actinides, primordial thorium and uranium occur naturally in substantial quantities. The radioactive decay of uranium produces transient amounts of actinium and protactinium, and atoms of neptunium and plutonium are occasionally produced from transmutation reactions in uranium ores. The other actinides are purely synthetic elements. Nuclear weapons tests have released at least six actinides heavier than plutonium into the environment; analysis of debris from a 1952 hydrogen bomb explosion showed the presence of americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium and fermium. In presentations of the periodic table, the f block elements are customarily shown as two additional rows below the main body of the table. ! Element
!Year
!Method
|
| Neptunium
| align=center| 1940
| Bombarding 238U with neutrons
|
| Plutonium
| align=center| 1941
| Bombarding 238U with deuterons
|
| Americium
| align=center| 1944
| Bombarding 239Pu with neutrons
|
| Curium
| align=center| 1944
| Bombarding 239Pu with α particles
|
| Berkelium
| align=center| 1949
| Bombarding 241Am with α particles
|
| Californium
| align=center| 1950
| Bombarding 242Cm with α particles
|
| Einsteinium
| align=center| 1952
| As a product of nuclear explosion
|
| Fermium
| align=center| 1952
| As a product of nuclear explosion
|
| Mendelevium
| align=center| 1955
| Bombarding 253Es with α particles
|
| Nobelium
| align=center| 1965
| Bombarding 243Am with 15N or 238U with 22Ne
|
| Lawrencium
| align=center| 1961–1971
| Bombarding 252Cf with 10B or 11Band of 243Am with 18O
|}
Like the lanthanides, the actinides form a family of elements with similar properties. Within the actinides, there are two overlapping groups: transuranium elements, which follow uranium in the periodic table; and transplutonium elements, which follow plutonium. Compared to the lanthanides, which (except for promethium) are found in nature in appreciable quantities, most actinides are rare. Most do not occur in nature, and of those that do, only thorium and uranium do so in more than trace quantities. The most abundant or easily synthesized actinides are uranium and thorium, followed by plutonium, americium, actinium, protactinium, neptunium, and curium. The existence of transuranium elements was suggested in 1934 by Enrico Fermi, based on his experiments. However, even though four actinides were known by that time, it was not yet understood that they formed a family similar to lanthanides. The prevailing view that dominated early research into transuranics was that they were regular elements in the 7th period, with thorium, protactinium and uranium corresponding to 6th period hafnium, tantalum and tungsten, respectively. Synthesis of transuranics gradually undermined this point of view. By 1944, an observation that curium failed to exhibit oxidation states above 4 (whereas its supposed 6th period homolog, platinum, can reach oxidation state of 6) prompted Glenn Seaborg to formulate an "actinide hypothesis". Studies of known actinides and discoveries of further transuranic elements provided more data in support of this position, but the phrase "actinide hypothesis" (the implication being that a "hypothesis" is something that has not been decisively proven) remained in active use by scientists through the late 1950s. At present, there are two major methods of producing isotopes of transplutonium elements: (1) irradiation of the lighter elements with neutrons; (2) irradiation with accelerated charged particles. The first method is more important for applications, as only neutron irradiation using nuclear reactors allows the production of sizeable amounts of synthetic actinides; however, it is limited to relatively light elements. The advantage of the second method is that elements heavier than plutonium, as well as neutron deficient isotopes, can be obtained, which are not formed during neutron irradiation. In 1962–1966, there were attempts in the United States to produce transplutonium isotopes using a series of six underground nuclear explosions. Small samples of rock were extracted from the blast area immediately after the test to study the explosion products, but no isotopes with mass number greater than 257 could be detected, despite predictions that such isotopes would have relatively long half lives of α decay. This non observation was attributed to spontaneous fission owing to the large speed of the products and to other decay channels, such as neutron emission and nuclear fission.
От актиниума к уранию
Уран и торий были первыми актинидами, обнаруженными. Уран был идентифицирован в 1789 году немецким химиком Мартином Генрихом Клапротом в руде урановой смолки (пичбленде). Он назвал его в честь планеты Уран. Шестьдесят лет спустя французский ученый Эжен Мелхиор Пелиго идентифицировал его как оксид урана. Он также изолировал первый образец металлического урана, нагревая тетрахлорид урана металлическим калием. Тогда атомная масса урана была рассчитана как 120, но Дмитрий Менделеев в 1872 году исправил ее до 240, используя свои законы периодичности. Это значение было экспериментально подтверждено в 1882 году К. Циммерманом. Оксид тория был обнаружен Фридрихом Вёлером в минерале торианите, найденном в Норвегии в 1827 году. Йёнс Якоб Берцелиус более подробно охарактеризовал этот материал в 1828 году. Он изолировал металл, восстанавливая тетрахлорид тория калием, и назвал его торием в честь скандинавского бога грома и молнии Тора. Тот же метод изоляции позже был использован Пелиго для урана, а в 1900 году – как аналогичный торию. Однако открытие актиниума Деберном было поставлено под сомнение в 1971 и 2000 годах, поскольку публикации Деберна 1904 года противоречили его более ранним работам 1899–1900 годов. Вместо этого приоритет в открытии отдан работе Фридриха Оскара Гизеля 1902 года, который обнаружил радиоактивный элемент под названием эманий, свойства которого были схожи с лантаном. Название «актиний» происходит от греческого слова ακτίς, ακτίνος, означающего луч или излучение. Этот металл был обнаружен не по его собственному излучению, а по излучению продуктов его распада. Из-за близкого сходства актиниума и лантана, а также его низкой распространенности, чистый актиний удалось получить только в 1950 году. Термин «актинид» предположительно был введен Виктором Голдшмидтом в 1937 году. Протактиний, возможно, был изолирован в 1900 году Уильямом Круксом. Впервые он был идентифицирован в 1913 году, когда Казимир Фаянс и Освальд Гельмут Гёринг обнаружили короткоживущий изотоп 234mPa (период полураспада 1,17 минуты) в ходе изучения цепи распада 238U. Они назвали новый элемент бревием (от латинского brevis, что означает «кратковременный»), но в 1918 году название было изменено на протоактиний (от греческих πρῶτος + ἀκτίς, что означает «первый лучевой элемент»), когда две группы ученых – под руководством Лизе Майтнер и Отто Гана из Германии и Фредерика Содди и Джона Арнольда Кранстона из Великобритании – независимо обнаружили гораздо более долгоживущий изотоп 231Pa. В 1949 году название было сокращено до протактиния. Этот элемент оставался малоизученным до 1960 года, когда Альфред Мэддок и его коллеги в Великобритании выделили 130 граммов протактиния из 60 тонн отходов, оставшихся после извлечения урана из руды.
Физические свойства
Основные кристаллические структуры некоторых актиноидов в зависимости от температуры. Металлические и ионные радиусы актиноидов характеризуются относительно высокой плотностью и пластичностью. Некоторые из них можно резать ножом. Их электрическое сопротивление изменяется в пределах от 15 до 150 мкОм·см. Температура плавления актиноидов не имеет явной зависимости от числа f-электронов. Необычно низкая температура плавления нептуния и плутония (~640 °C) объясняется гибридизацией 5f и 6d орбиталей и образованием направленных связей в этих металлах. Лантаниды Ln3+, Å Актиниды An3+, Å An4+, Å Лантан 1.061 Актиний 1.11– Церий 1.034 Торий 1.08 0.99 Празеодим 1.013 Протактиний 1.05 0.93 Неодим 0.995 Уран 1.03 0.93 Прометий 0.979 Нептуний 1.01 0.92 Самарий 0.964 Плутоний 1.00 0.90 Европий 0.950 Америций 0.99 0.89 Гадолиний 0.938 Курий 0.98 0.88 Тербий 0.923 Берклий –– Дипрозий 0.908 Калифорний –– Холмий 0.894 Эйнштейний –– Эрбий 0.881 Фермий –– Тулий 0.869 Менделевий –– Иттербий 0.858 Нобелий –– Лютеций 0.848 Лоуренсий ––