Малаккский султанат: расцвет и наследие (1400–1511)

State on the Malay Peninsula and surrounding regions (1400–1511)

The Malacca Sultanate (; Jawi script: ) was a Malay sultanate based in the modern day state of Malacca, Malaysia. Conventional historical thesis marks c. 1400 as the founding year of the sultanate by King of Singapura, Parameswara, also known as Iskandar Shah, although earlier dates for its founding have been proposed. At the height of the sultanate's power in the 15th century, its capital grew into one of the most important transshipment ports of its time, with territory covering much of the Malay Peninsula, the Riau Islands and a significant portion of the northern coast of Sumatra in present day Indonesia. As a bustling international trading port, Malacca emerged as a centre for Islamic learning and dissemination, and encouraged the development of the Malay language, literature and arts. It heralded the golden age of Malay sultanates in the archipelago, in which Classical Malay became the lingua franca of Maritime Southeast Asia and Jawi script became the primary medium for cultural, religious and intellectual exchange. It is through these intellectual, spiritual and cultural developments, that the Malaccan era witnessed the establishment of a Malay identity, the Malayisation of the region and the subsequent formation of the Malay world. In 1511, the capital of Malacca fell to the Portuguese Empire, forcing the last Sultan, Mahmud Shah , to retreat south, where his progenies established new ruling dynasties, Johor and Perak. The political and cultural legacy of the sultanate has endured for centuries, where Malacca has been held up as an exemplar of Malay Muslim civilisation to this day. It established systems of trade, diplomacy, and governance that persisted well into the 19th century, and introduced concepts such as daulat—a distinctly Malay notion of sovereignty—that continues to shape contemporary understanding of Malay kingship.

The founding of Malacca is generally taken to be c. 1400 – c. no. The Orang Laut, known for their loyal services to Srivijaya, eventually made him king of a new kingdom called Singapura. In the 14th century, Singapura developed concurrently with the Pax Mongolica era and rose from a small trading outpost into a centre of international trade with strong ties to the Yuan dynasty. In an effort to revive the fortune of Malayu in Sumatra, in the 1370s, a Malay ruler of Palembang sent an envoy to the court of the first emperor of the newly established Ming dynasty. He invited China to resume the tributary system, just like Srivijaya did centuries earlier. Learning of this diplomatic maneuver, King Hayam Wuruk of Majapahit sent an envoy to Nanking and convinced the emperor that Malayu was their vassal, and not an independent country. Subsequently, in 1377—a few years after the death of Gajah Mada, Majapahit sent a punitive naval attack against a rebellion in Palembang, which caused the diaspora of the Palembang princes and nobles. By the second half of the 14th century, the Kingdom of Singapura grew wealthy. However, its success alarmed two regional powers at that time, Ayutthaya to the north and Majapahit to the south. As a result, the kingdom's fortified capital was attacked by at least two major foreign invasions before it was finally sacked by either Ayutthaya or Majapahit in 1398. The last king of Singapura then fled to the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. Malay and Portuguese sources give different accounts of the fall of Singapura and its last king. In Portuguese sources, he is referred to as Parameswara and originated in Palembang but usurped the throne of Singapura, but in Malay sources he is Iskandar Shah, a descendant Seri Teri Buana who became the fifth king of Singapura. Parameswara fled north to Muar, Ujong Tanah and Biawak Busuk before reaching a fishing village at the mouth of Bertam River (modern day Malacca River). The village belonged to the Orang Laut who were left alone by Majapahit's forces that not only sacked Singapura but also Langkasuka and Pasai. As a result, the village became a safe haven and in the 1370s it began to receive a growing number of refugees fleeing Majapahit's attacks. By the time Parameswara reached Malacca in the early 1400s, the place was already cosmopolitan feel with Buddhists from the north, Hindus from Palembang and Muslims from Pasai. Legend has it that Parameswara saw a mouse deer outwit his hunting dog into the water when he was resting under the Malacca tree. He thought this bode well, stating, "this place is excellent, even the mouse deer is formidable; it is best that we establish a kingdom here". Tradition holds that he named the settlement after the tree he was leaning against while witnessing the portentous event. Today, the mouse deer is part of modern Malacca's coat of arms. The name "Malacca" itself was derived from the fruit bearing Melaka tree scientifically termed as Phyllanthus emblica. Another theory to the origin of Malacca's name is that it originated from Arab merchants, during the reign of Sultan Muhammad Shah , who called the kingdom "Malakat" (Arabic for "congregation of merchants:) because it was home to many trading communities.

Malacca reached its height of glory between the mid to late 15th century up to before the Portuguese occupation. The reign of Sultan Muzaffar Shah saw the territorial incorporation of the region between Dindings and Johor, and was the first Malaccan ruler to impose authority over both the western and eastern ends of the Malay Peninsula. The reign of Mansur Shah witnessed a major expansion of the sultanate. Among the earliest territory ceded to the sultanate was Pahang, with its capital, Inderapura—a massive unexplored land with a large river and abundant source of gold which was ruled by Maharaja Dewa Sura, a relative of the King of Ligor. The Sultan dispatched a fleet of two hundred ships, led by Tun Perak and 19 Malaccan hulubalangs. On reaching Pahang, a battle broke out in which the Pahangites were decisively defeated and its entire royal court were captured. The Malaccan fleet returned home with Dewa Sura and his daughter, Wanang Seri who were handed over to Sultan Mansur Shah. The Sultan appointed Tun Hamzah to rule Pahang. A policy of rapprochement with Ligor was later initiated by Mansur Shah to ensure steady supplies of rice. Mansur Shah was also able to vassalise Siak in Sumatra. Later in his reign, Pahang, Kampar and Indragiri rebelled but were eventually subdued. The brief conflict between Malacca and Đại Việt during the reign of Lê Thánh Tông , began shortly after the 1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa, then already a Muslim kingdom. The Chinese government, without knowing about the event, sent a censor Ch'en Chun to Champa in 1474 to install the Champa King, but he discovered Vietnamese soldiers had taken over Champa and were blocking his entry. He proceeded to Malacca instead and its ruler sent back tribute to China. In 1469, Malaccan envoys on their return from China was attacked by the Vietnamese who castrated the young and enslaved them. In view of the Lê dynasty's position as a protectorate to China, Malacca abstained from any act of retaliation. Instead, Malacca sent envoys to China in 1481 to report on the Vietnamese aggression and their invasion plan against Malacca, as well as to confront the Vietnamese envoys who happened to be present in the Ming court. However, the Chinese informed that since the incident was years old, they could do nothing about it, and the Emperor sent a letter to the Vietnamese ruler reproaching him for the incident. The Chinese Emperor also granted permission for Malacca to retaliate with violent force should the Vietnamese attack, an event that never happened again. An unsubstantiated Chinese account reported that Lê Thánh Tông led 90,000 men on an invasion to Lan Sang but this force was chased away by a Malaccan army that beheaded 30,000 Đại Việt soldiers. The expansionist policy of Mansur Shah was maintained throughout his reign when he later added Kampar and Siak to his realm. He also turned a number of states in the archipelago into his imperial dependencies. The ruler of such states would come to Malacca after their coronation to obtain the blessing of the Sultan of Malacca. Rulers who had been overthrown also came to Malacca requesting the Sultan's aid in reclaiming their throne. One such examples was Sultan Zainal Abidin of Pasai who was toppled by his relatives. He fled to Malacca and pleaded with Sultan Mansur Shah to reinstall him as a ruler. Malacca armed forces were immediately sent to Pasai and defeated the usurpers. Although Pasai never came under the control of Malacca afterwards, the event greatly demonstrated the importance of Malacca and the mutual support it had established among leaders and states in the region. In April 1511 Afonso de Albuquerque, who was the Portuguese expedition leader together with his armada, arrived in Malacca to sever its Islamic and Venetian trade. His intention was described in his own words when he arrived to Malacca:

blockquote|If they were only to take "Malaca" out of the hands of the Moors, Cairo and Mecca would be entirely ruined, and Venice would then be able to obtain no spiceries except what her merchants might buy in Portugal.|Report on Albuquerque's words on his arrival to Malacca. In retaliation for Portugal's activity in Malacca, several Portuguese were later killed by the Chinese in the battles of Tunmen and Xicaowan in China. Despite numerous attacks, the fort was only breached once, when the Dutch and Johor defeated the Portuguese in 1641. It soon became clear that Portuguese control of Malacca did not mean they controlled the Asian trade centred on it. Their rule in Malacca was marred with difficulties. They could not become self sufficient and remained highly dependent on Asian suppliers, as had their Malay predecessors. They were short of both funds and manpower and the administration was hampered by organizational confusion and command overlap, corruption and inefficiency. Competition from other regional ports such as Johor which was founded by the exiled Sultan of Malacca, saw Asian traders bypass Malacca and the city began to decline as a trading port. Rather than achieving their ambition of dominating it, the Portuguese had fundamentally disrupted the organisation of the Asian trade network. The previously centralised port of exchange that policed the Strait of Malacca to maintain its safety for commercial traffic, was replaced with scattered trading network with multiple ports rivalling each other in the strait. The efforts to propagate Christianity which was also one of the principal aims of Portuguese imperialism did not, meet with much success, primarily because Islam was already strongly entrenched among the local population.

The Portuguese conquest of Malacca enraged the Zhengde Emperor of China when he received the envoys from the exiled Sultan Mahmud. The furious Chinese emperor responded with force, culminating in a period of persecution of Portuguese in China which lasted three decades. Among the earliest victims were the Portuguese envoys led by Tomé Pires in 1516 that were greeted with great hostility and suspicion. The Chinese confiscated all of the Portuguese property and goods in the Pires' embassy's possession. Many of the envoys were imprisoned, tortured and executed. Pires himself was said among those who died in the Chinese dungeons. Two successive Portuguese fleets bound for China in 1521 and 1522 were attacked and defeated in the first and second Battle of Tamao. In response to Portuguese piracy and the illegal installation of bases in Fujian at Wuyu island, Yue harbour at Zhangzhou, Shuangyu island in Zhejiang, and Nan'ao island in Guangdong, the Imperial Chinese Right Deputy Commander Zhu Wan killed all the pirates and razed the Shuangyu Portuguese base, using force to prohibit trading with foreigners by sea. Moreover, Chinese traders boycotted Malacca after it fell under Portuguese control, with some Chinese in Java even assisting in Muslim attempts to invade the city. Relations gradualy improved and aid was given against the Japanese Wokou pirates along China's shores. By 1557 Ming China agreed to allow the Portuguese to settle at Macau in a new Portuguese trade colony. The Malay Sultanate of Johor also improved relations with the Portuguese.

The exiled Sultan Mahmud Shah made several attempts to retake the capital but his efforts were fruitless. The Portuguese retaliated and forced the Sultan to flee to Pahang. Later, the Sultan sailed to Bintan and established his capital there. From the new base, the Sultan rallied the disarrayed Malay forces and organised several attacks and blockades against the Portuguese's position. Frequent raids on Malacca caused the Portuguese severe hardship and helped convince the Portuguese that the exiled Sultan's forces needed to be destroyed. A number of attempts were made to suppress the Malay forces but were unsuccessful, until 1526 when the Portuguese razed Bintan. The Sultan retreated to Kampar in Sumatra where he died two years later. He left behind two sons named Muzaffar Shah and Alauddin Riayat Shah II. Muzaffar Shah was invited by the people in the north of the peninsula to become their ruler, establishing the Sultanate of Perak. Meanwhile, Mahmud Shah's other son, Alauddin succeeded his father and established the Sultanate of Johor. Malacca was later conquered by the Dutch in a joint military campaign in January 1641. The Portuguese fortress, did not fall to the force of Dutch or Johorean arms as much as to famine and disease that decimated the surviving population. As a result of mutual agreement between the Dutch and Johor earlier in 1606, Malacca was handed over to the Dutch. The fall of Malacca benefited other kingdoms such as Brunei whose ports became a new entrepôt as the kingdom emerged as a new center of trade in the Malay Archipelago, attracting many Muslim traders who fled from the Portuguese occupation after the ruler of Brunei's conversion to Islam.

Malacca developed from a small settlement to a cosmopolitan Entrepôt within the span of a century. This rapid progression was attributable to several factors, key among which were its strategic location along one of the world's most important shipping lanes, the Strait of Malacca and the increasing demand for commodities from both the East and the West. Ships from the East bearing goods from China, the Ryukyu Islands, Java and the Maluku Islands would sail in by the northeast monsoon from December to January, while ships leaving for ports along Indian coastline, the Red Sea and East Africa would sail with the southwest monsoon. Within a span of a century, the sultanate left a lasting and important legacy, especially within Malay culture and the History of Malaysia. Malacca was the first Malay Muslim state that achieved the status of a regional maritime power. Despite the existence of earlier Muslim kingdoms such as Kedah, Samudra Pasai and Aru, which also possessed well established ports, none of them came close in challenging Malacca's success in expanding its territory and influence in the region. Malacca also contributed to the evolution of a common Malay culture based on Islam by incorporating native and Hindu Buddhist ideas and layered them extensively with Islamic ideas and values. Through its traditions, laws, and royal rituals and customs, the Malaccan court set an example for later Muslim sultanates in the region to follow. Malacca is important to the modern nation of Malaysia as it was the first centralised polity that consolidated the entire Malay Peninsula under its rule. Because of these roles, Malacca is considered by many to be the spiritual birthplace of Malaysia. After the Sultanate of Malacca fell to Portugal in 1511, Mahmud Shah retreated to Kampar, Sumatra, he left behind a prince named Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II who went on to establish the Sultanate of Johor. The Malacca Sultanate also emerged as the primary base in continuing the historic struggles of its predecessors, Singapura and Srivijaya, against their Java based rivals. By the mid 15th century, Majapahit found itself unable to control the rising power of Malacca which had begun to gain effective control of the Strait of Malacca and expand its influence to Sumatra. As a major entrepôt, Malacca attracted Muslim traders from various part of the world and became a centre of Islam, spreading the religion throughout Maritime Southeast Asia. The expansion of Islam into the interior of Java in the 15th century led to the gradual decline of Majapahit, before it finally succumbed to the emerging local Muslim forces in the early 16th century. At the same time, the literary tradition of Malacca developed the Classical Malay that eventually became the lingua franca of the region. The advent of Islam coupled with flourishing trade that used Malay as medium of communication, culminated in the domination of Malacca and other succeeding Malay Muslim sultanates in Maritime Southeast Asia. As noted by certain scholars, the historic Malay Javanese rivalry in the region, has persisted into modern times, and continues to shape the diplomatic relations between the Malay centric Malaysia and the Java based Indonesia.