Введение
Узбекистан – страна в Центральной Азии, не имеющая выхода к морю. Она окружена пятью странами, не имеющими выхода к морю: Казахстаном на севере; Кыргызстаном на северо-востоке; Таджикистаном на юго-востоке; Афганистаном на юге и Туркменистаном на юго-западе. Столица и крупнейший город – Ташкент. Узбекистан является частью тюркского языкового мира и членом Организации тюркских государств. Хотя узбекский язык является основным языком Узбекистана, русский язык широко используется как язык межнационального общения и в государственном управлении. Ислам является преобладающей религией в Узбекистане, большинство узбеков – мусульмане, не придерживающиеся строгих религиозных обрядов. В древности территория Узбекистана в значительной степени совпадала с регионом, известным как Согдиана, а также с Бактрией. Первыми людьми, сведения о которых зафиксированы в Центральной Азии, были скифы, пришедшие из северных степей современной территории Узбекистана примерно в первом тысячелетии до нашей эры. Когда эти кочевники осели в регионе, они построили обширную систему орошения вдоль рек. В этот период города Бухара и Самарканд стали центрами управления и развитой культуры. Ранние мусульманские завоевания и последовавшая за ними империя Саманидов обратили в ислам большинство населения, включая местную правящую элиту. В этот период жили выдающиеся деятели исламского Золотого века, такие как Мухаммад аль-Бухари, Аль-Тирмизи, аль-Хорезми, аль-Бируни, Авиценна и Омар Хайям. Местная династия Хорезмшахов и Центральная Азия в целом были опустошены монгольским нашествием в XIII веке, после чего регион оказался под властью тюркских народов. Город Шахрисабз был родиной тюрко-монгольского завоевателя Тимура (Тамерлана), который в XIV веке основал Империю Тимуридов и был провозглашен Верховным эмиром Турана со столицей в Самарканде. Самарканд при правлении Улугбека стал центром науки, что привело к расцвету Тимуридского Ренессанса. Территории династии Тимуридов были завоеваны узбекскими шайбанидами в XVI веке, и центр власти переместился в Бухару. Регион был разделен на три государства: Хивинское ханство, Кокандское ханство и Бухарский эмират. Завоевания могольского императора Бабура на востоке привели к основанию Империи Великих Моголов и новым вторжениям в Индию. В течение XIX века вся Центральная Азия постепенно вошла в состав Российской империи, а Ташкент стал политическим центром Российского Туркестана. В 1924 году в результате национальной территориальной делимитации была образована Узбекская Советская Социалистическая Республика как самостоятельная республика в составе Советского Союза. После распада Советского Союза 31 августа 1991 года Узбекистан провозгласил свою независимость как Республика Узбекистан.
Uzbekistan is a landlocked country in Central Asia. It is itself surrounded by five landlocked countries: Kazakhstan to the north; Kyrgyzstan to the northeast; Tajikistan to the southeast; Afghanistan to the south, Turkmenistan to the south west. Its capital and largest city is Tashkent. Uzbekistan is part of the Turkic languages world, as well as a member of the Organization of Turkic States. While the Uzbek language is the majority spoken language in Uzbekistan, Russian is widely used as an inter ethnic tongue and in government. Islam is the majority religion in Uzbekistan, most Uzbeks being non denominational Muslims. In ancient times it largely overlapped with the region known as Sogdia, and also with Bactria. The first people recorded in Central Asia were Scythians who came from the northern grasslands of what is now Uzbekistan, sometime in the first millennium BC; when these nomads settled in the region they built an extensive irrigation system along the rivers. At this time, cities such as Bukhoro (Bukhara) and Samarqand (Samarkand) emerged as centres of government and high culture. The Early Muslim conquests and the subsequent Samanid Empire converted most of the people, including the local ruling classes, into adherents of Islam. This period saw leading figures of the Islamic Golden Age, including Muhammad al Bukhari, Al Tirmidhi, al Khwarizmi, al Biruni, Avicenna and Omar Khayyam. The local Khwarazmian dynasty and Central Asia as a whole were decimated by the Mongol invasion in the 13th century, after which the region became dominated by Turkic peoples. The city of Shahrisabz was the birthplace of the Turco Mongol conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), who in the 14th century established the Timurid Empire and was proclaimed the Supreme Emir of Turan with his capital in Samarkand, which became a centre of science under the rule of Ulugh Beg, giving birth to the Timurid Renaissance. The territories of the Timurid dynasty were conquered by Uzbek Shaybanids in the 16th century, moving the centre of power to Bukhara. The region was split into three states: the Khanate of Khiva, Khanate of Kokand and Emirate of Bukhara. Conquests by the Mughal emperor Babur towards the east led to the foundation of India's newest invasions as the Mughal Empire. All of Central Asia was gradually incorporated into the Russian Empire during the 19th century, with Tashkent becoming the political center of Russian Turkestan. In 1924, national delimitation created the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic as an independent republic within the Soviet Union. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, it declared independence as the Republic of Uzbekistan on 31 August 1991.
Предыстория
В 1938 году А. Окладников обнаружил 70,000-летний череп ребенка неандертальца в возрасте от 8 до 11 лет в Тешик-Таше в Узбекистане. После этого Центральную Азию заселили скифы – иранские кочевники, пришедшие из северных степей нынешнего Казахстана примерно в первом тысячелетии до нашей эры. Эти кочевники, говорившие на иранских диалектах, обосновались в Центральной Азии и начали строить обширную систему орошения вдоль рек региона. Города, такие как Бухара (Бухара) и Самарканд (Самарканд), стали возникать как центры власти и культуры. В первом тысячелетии до нашей эры иранские кочевники создали ирригационные системы вдоль рек Центральной Азии и основали города в Бухаре и Самарканде. Эти места превратились в чрезвычайно богатые транзитные пункты на Шелковом пути между Китаем и Европой.
Ранняя история
В седьмом веке нашей эры согдийские иранцы, извлекавшие наибольшую выгоду из этой торговли, увидели, что их провинция Трансоксиана (Маварнанахр) была завоевана арабами, которые распространили ислам по всему региону. Под арабским халифатом Аббасидов и (начиная с середины IX века) Персидской империей Саманидов, VIII–X века стали золотым веком науки и культуры в Трансоксиане. К V веку до н.э. регионом доминировали Бактрийские, Согдийские и Тохарские государства. С началом развития Китаем торговли шелком с Западом, иранские города воспользовались этой коммерцией, став торговыми центрами. Используя обширную сеть городов и поселений в провинции Трансоксиана (Маварнанахр – название, данное региону после арабского завоевания) в Узбекистане и далее на восток, в современном Синьцзян-Уйгурском автономном районе Китая, согдийские посредники стали самыми богатыми из этих иранских купцов. Благодаря этой торговле, известной как Шелковый путь, Бухара и Самарканд со временем превратились в чрезвычайно богатые города, а Трансоксиана в определенные периоды была одной из самых влиятельных и могущественных персидских провинций древности. Александр Великий завоевал регион в 328 году до н.э., ненадолго подчинив его своей македонской империи. В 630 и 658 годах Восточный и Западный Тюркские каганаты были завоеваны китайской династией Тан. В эпоху Западного Тюркского каганата (603–658 гг.) политическое влияние тюрков в Согде возросло. Процесс расселения тюрков в оазисах Центральной Азии способствовал развитию древнетюркской письменности и денежных отношений. Некоторые тюркские правители Бухары, Чача и Ферганы чеканили собственные монеты. Часть бухарских тюрков приняла христианство, а турки из других регионов – буддизм и зороастризм. Первые шаги по официальному внедрению буддизма в религиозную практику тюрков были предприняты Муканом Каганом (553–572 гг.). Однако только Таспар Каган (572–580 гг.) придал буддийской миссии такой масштаб, который мог обеспечить последователям этой религии культурный и политический приоритет в ставке Кагана. Большинство тюркского населения сохранили свою прежнюю веру. В источниках упоминаются следующие тюркские божества: Тенгри (Небо), Умай (Богиня-Мать), Ер-суб (Земля-Вода) и Эрклиг (Господин Ада), среди которых Тенгри, правитель Верхнего Мира, занимал доминирующее положение.
Ранний исламский период
Завоевание Центральной Азии мусульманскими арабами, завершившееся в восьмом веке нашей эры, принесло в регион новую религию, которая продолжает оставаться доминирующей. Арабы впервые вторглись в Трансоксиану в середине седьмого века, совершая спорадические набеги во время завоевания Персии. Доступные источники об арабском завоевании свидетельствуют о том, что согдийцы и другие иранские народы Центральной Азии не смогли защитить свои земли от арабов из-за внутренних распрей и отсутствия сильного местного руководства. С другой стороны, арабы возглавлялись блестящим полководцем Кутайбой ибн Муслимом и были сильно мотивированы стремлением распространить свою новую веру (официальное начало которой относится к 622 году нашей эры). Благодаря этим факторам население Трансоксианы было легко покорено. Новая религия, принесенная арабами, постепенно распространялась по региону. Местные религиозные традиции, которые в некоторых аспектах уже вытеснялись персидским влиянием до прихода арабов, были еще больше ослаблены в последующие столетия. Тем не менее, судьба Центральной Азии как исламского региона была окончательно определена арабской победой над китайскими войсками в 750 году в битве при реке Талас. Несмотря на непродолжительное арабское правление, Центральная Азия успешно сохранила значительную часть своей иранской идентичности, оставаясь важным центром культуры и торговли на протяжении веков после принятия новой религии. Трансоксиана продолжала играть важную политическую роль в региональных делах, как и при различных персидских династиях. Фактически, Аббасидский халифат, правивший арабским миром на протяжении пяти веков, начиная с 750 года, был установлен во многом благодаря поддержке сторонников из Центральной Азии в их борьбе против правящего тогда халифата Омейядов. Это были тюрки, населявшие обширные степи от Монголии до Каспийского моря. Позднее, в основном в качестве рабских солдат при династии Саманидов, эти тюрки служили в армиях всех государств региона, включая армию Аббасидов. В конце X века, когда Саманиды начали терять контроль над Трансоксианой (Мавараннахр) и северо-восточным Ираном, некоторые из этих солдат заняли влиятельные посты в правительстве региона и в конечном итоге основали свои собственные государства, хотя и сильно подвергшиеся персидизации. С появлением тюркской правящей элиты в регионе другие тюркские племена начали мигрировать в Трансоксиану. Первым тюркским государством в регионе стала персидская Газнавидская империя, основанная в последние годы X века. Газнавидское государство, захватившее владения Саманидов к югу от Амударьи, смогло завоевать обширные территории восточного Ирана, Центральной Азии, Афганистана и Пакистана во время правления султана Махмуда. За Газнавидами вскоре последовали тюркские Караханиды, захватившие столицу Саманидов Бухару в 999 году нашей эры и правившие Трансоксианой в течение следующих двух столетий. Самарканд стал столицей государства Западных Караханидов. Однако господство Газны было ограничено, когда сельджуки вторглись в западную часть региона, завоевав территорию Газнавидов Хорезм (также известный как Хорезм и Хваррезм). В XI веке сельджуки доминировали на обширной территории от Малой Азии, Ирана, Ирака и частей Кавказа до западных областей Трансоксианы и Афганистана. Затем Сельджукская империя распалась на государства, управляемые различными местными тюркскими и иранскими правителями. Однако культура и интеллектуальная жизнь региона остались незатронутыми этими политическими изменениями. В этот период в регион продолжали мигрировать тюркские племена с севера.
Монгольский период
Монгольское вторжение в Центральную Азию стало одним из переломных моментов в истории региона. Монголы оказали столь значительное и продолжительное влияние, поскольку установили традицию, согласно которой законным правителем любого центральноазиатского государства мог быть лишь прямой потомок Чингисхана. Монгольское завоевание Центральной Азии, произошедшее в период с 1219 по 1225 год, привело к коренным изменениям в демографическом составе Мавараннахра. Завоевание ускорило процесс тюркизации в некоторых частях региона, поскольку, хотя во главе армий Чингисхана стояли монголы, основу этих армий составляли тюркские племена, которые присоединялись к монголам по мере продвижения их на юг. Когда эти войска обосновались в Мавараннахре, они смешивались с местным населением, которое не покинуло эти земли. Другим следствием монгольского завоевания стали масштабные разрушения, нанесенные солдатами таким городам, как Бухара, и таким регионам, как Хорезм. Хорезм, будучи ведущей провинцией богатого государства, подвергся особенно жестокому обращению. Ирригационные системы региона были серьезно повреждены, и их восстановление заняло несколько поколений. Однако Хорезм входил в состав Золотой Орды.
Тимур и тимуриды
В начале четырнадцатого века, однако, по мере того как империя начала распадаться на составляющие части, чагатайские владения также оказались нарушены, поскольку князья различных племенных групп соперничали за влияние. Из этой борьбы в 1380-х годах выдвинулся Тимур (Тамерлан), став доминирующей силой в Мавераннахре. Хотя он не был потомком Чингисхана, Тимур стал фактическим правителем Мавераннахра и продолжил завоевывать всю западную Центральную Азию, Иран, Малую Азию и южную степную область к северу от Аральского моря. Он также совершил вторжение в Россию, прежде чем скончался во время похода на Китай в 1405 году.
Near the end of the sixteenth century, the Uzbek states of Bukhara and Khorazm began to weaken because of their endless wars against each other and the Persians and because of strong competition for the throne among the khans in power and their heirs. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Shaybanid Dynasty was replaced by the Janid Dynasty. Meanwhile, in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries new dynasties led the khanates to a period of recovery. Those dynasties were the Qongrats in Khiva, the Manghits in Bukhara, and the Mins in Quqon. These new dynasties established centralized states with standing armies and new irrigation works. However, their rise coincided with the ascendance of Russian influence in the Kazahk steppes and the establishment of British rule in India. By the early nineteenth century, the region was the scene of the "Great Game", a series of political maneuverers between the two powers to prevent the other from gaining power in Central Asia. The Central Asian powers took little notice of this political bickering between the European powers, continuing to wage wars of conquest amongst themselves. As soon as the Russian conquest of the Caucasus was completed in the late 1850s, the Russian Ministry of War began to send military forces against the Central Asian khanates. Three major population centers of the khanates—Tashkent, Kokand, and Samarqand — were captured in 1865, 1876, and 1868, respectively. In 1868 the Khanate of Bukhara signed a treaty with Russia making Bukhara a Russian protectorate. In 1868 the Khanate of Kokand was confined to the Ferghana Valley and in 1876 it was annexed. The Khanate of Khiva became a Russian protectorate in 1873. Thus by 1876 the entire territory comprising present day Uzbekistan either had fallen under direct Russian rule or had become a protectorate of Russia. The treaties establishing the protectorates over Bukhara and Khiva gave Russia control of the foreign relations of these states and gave Russian merchants important concessions in foreign trade; the khanates retained control of their own internal affairs. Tashkent and Quqon fell directly under a Russian governor general. The only avenue for Uzbek resistance to Russian rule became the Pan Turkish movement, also known as Jadidism, which had arisen in the 1860s among intellectuals who sought to preserve indigenous Islamic Central Asian culture from Russian encroachment. By 1900 Jadidism had developed into the region's first major movement of political resistance. Until the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, the modern, secular ideas of Jadidism faced resistance from both the Russians and the Uzbek khans, who had differing reasons to fear the movement. After 1900 the khanates continued to enjoy a certain degree of autonomy in their internal affairs. However, they ultimately were subservient to the Russian governor general in Tashkent, who ruled the region in the name of Tsar Nicholas II. The Russian Empire exercised direct control over large tracts of territory in Central Asia, allowing the khanates to rule a large portion of their ancient lands for themselves. In this period, large numbers of Russians, attracted by the climate and the available land, immigrated into Central Asia. After 1900, increased contact with Russian civilization began to affect the lives of Central Asians in the larger population centers where the Russians settled. In the summer of 1916, a number of settlements in eastern Uzbekistan were the sites of violent demonstrations against a new Russian decree canceling the Central Asians' immunity to conscription for duty in World War I. Reprisals of increasing violence ensued, and the struggle spread from Uzbekistan into Kyrgyz and Kazak territory. There, Russian confiscation of grazing land already had created animosity not present in the Uzbek population, which was concerned mainly with preserving its rights. Following the purge of the nationalists, the government and party ranks in Uzbekistan were filled with people loyal to the Moscow government. Economic policy emphasized the supply of cotton to the rest of the Soviet Union, to the exclusion of diversified agriculture. During World War II, many industrial plants from European Russia were evacuated to Uzbekistan and other parts of Central Asia. With the factories came a new wave of Russian and other European workers. Because native Uzbeks were mostly occupied in the country's agricultural regions, the urban concentration of immigrants increasingly Russified Tashkent and other large cities. During the war years, in addition to the Russians who moved to Uzbekistan, other nationalities such as Crimean Tatars, Chechens, and Koreans were exiled to the republic because Moscow saw them as subversive elements in European Russia. Unreliable source: date=January 2019 Russian was the language of state, and Russification was the prerequisite for obtaining a position in the government or the party. Those who did not or could not abandon their Uzbek lifestyles and identities were excluded from leading roles in official Uzbek society. Because of these conditions, Uzbekistan gained a reputation as one of the most politically conservative republics in the Soviet Union. In 1989 ethnic animosities came to a head in the Fergana Valley, where local Meskhetian Turks were assaulted by Uzbeks, and in 1990 in the Kyrgyz city of Osh Uzbek and Kyrgyz youth clashed. Moscow's response to this violence was a reduction of the purges and the appointment of Islam Karimov as first secretary of the Communist Party of Uzbekistan. The appointment of Karimov, who was not a member of the local party elite, signified that Moscow wanted to lessen tensions by appointing an outsider who had not been involved in the purges. Although Uzbekistan had not sought independence, when events brought them to that point, Karimov and his government moved quickly to adapt themselves to the new realities. They realized that under the Commonwealth of Independent States, the loose federation proposed to replace the Soviet Union, no central government would provide the subsidies to which Uzbek governments had become accustomed for the previous 70 years. Old economic ties would have to be reexamined and new markets and economic mechanisms established. Although Uzbekistan as defined by the Soviets had never had independent foreign relations, diplomatic relations would have to be established with foreign countries quickly. Investment and foreign credits would have to be attracted, a formidable challenge in light of Western restrictions on financial aid to nations restricting expression of political dissent. For example, the suppression of internal dissent in 1992 and 1993 had an unexpectedly chilling effect on foreign investment. Uzbekistan's image in the West alternated in the ensuing years between an attractive, stable experimental zone for investment and a post Soviet dictatorship whose human rights record made financial aid inadvisable. Such alternation exerted strong influence on the political and economic fortunes of the new republic in its first five years. On July 30, 2004, terrorists bombed the embassies of Israel and the United States in Tashkent, killing three people and wounding several. The Jihad Group in Uzbekistan posted a claim of responsibility for those attacks on a website linked to Al Qaeda. Terrorism experts say the reason for the attacks is Uzbekistan's support of the United States and its War on terror. In May 2005, several hundred demonstrators were killed when Uzbek troops fired into a crowd protesting against the imprisonment of 23 local businessmen. (For further details, see 2005 Andijan Unrest.) In July 2005, the Uzbek government gave the US 180 days' notice to leave the airbase it had leased in Uzbekistan. A Russian airbase and a German airbase remain. In December 2007 Islam A. Karimov was reelected to power in a fraudulent election. Western election observers noted that the election failed to meet many OSCE benchmarks for democratic elections, the elections were held in a strictly controlled environment, and there had been no real opposition since all the candidates publicly endorsed the incumbent. Human rights activists reported various cases of multiple voting throughout the country as well as official pressure on voters at polling stations to cast ballots for Karimov. The BBC reported that many people were afraid to vote for anyone other than the president. According to the constitution Karimov was ineligible to stand as a candidate, having already served two consecutive presidential terms and thus his candidature was illegal. Around 300 dissidents were in jail in 2007, including Jamshid Karimov, the president's 41 year old nephew. In 2016, Islam Karimov died after suffered with stroke for almost a week earlier, while still being a president and was replaced by Shavkat Mirziyoyev, who was Uzbekistan's interim leader since the death of Islam Karimov. In December 2016, Shavkat Mirziyoyev won the presidential election with signs of fraud. On 6 November 2021, President Shavkat Mirziyoyev was sworn into his second term in office, after gaining a landslide victory in presidential election. On 1 July 2022 protests broke out in the autonomous region of Karakalpakstan over proposed amendments to the Constitution of Uzbekistan which would have ended Karakalpakstan's status as an autonomous region of Uzbekistan and right to secede from Uzbekistan via referendum. They were brutally suppressed, at least 18 people were killed.
К концу шестнадцатого века узбекские государства Бухара и Хорезм начали ослабевать из-за бесконечных войн друг с другом и с персами, а также из-за острой конкуренции за трон между правящими ханами и их наследниками. В начале семнадцатого века династия Шайбанидов была заменена династией Джанидов. Между тем, в конце восемнадцатого и начале девятнадцатого веков новые династии привели ханства к периоду восстановления: конграты в Хиве, мангиты в Бухаре и минцы в Кукене. Эти новые династии создали централизованные государства со стоячей армией и новыми ирригационными сооружениями. Однако их возвышение совпало с усилением российского влияния в казахских степях и установлением британского правления в Индии. К началу девятнадцатого века регион стал ареной «Большой игры» – серии политических маневров между двумя державами, направленных на то, чтобы не допустить усиления другой в Центральной Азии. Центральноазиатские державы мало обращали внимания на эти политические распри между европейскими державами, продолжая вести между собой завоевательные войны. Как только русское завоевание Кавказа было завершено в конце 1850-х годов, российское военное министерство начало направлять военные силы против центральноазиатских ханств. Три основных центра населения ханств – Ташкент, Коканд и Самарканд – были захвачены в 1865, 1876 и 1868 годах соответственно. В 1868 году Бухарское ханство подписало договор с Россией, превратив Бухару в российский протекторат. В 1868 году Кокандское ханство было ограничено Ферганской долиной, а в 1876 году было аннексировано. Хивинское ханство стало российским протекторатом в 1873 году. Таким образом, к 1876 году вся территория, составляющая современный Узбекистан, либо перешла под прямое российское правление, либо стала протекторатом России. Договоры об установлении протекторатов над Бухарой и Хивой предоставили России контроль над внешними отношениями этих государств и дали российским купцам важные уступки во внешней торговле; ханства сохранили контроль над своими внутренними делами. Ташкент и Коканд перешли под непосредственное управление русского генерал-губернатора. Единственным путем сопротивления узбекского народа российскому правлению стало пантюркское движение, также известное как джадидизм, возникшее в 1860-х годах среди интеллектуалов, стремившихся сохранить культуру коренных мусульман Центральной Азии от российского проникновения. К 1900 году джадидизм превратился в первое крупное движение политического сопротивления в регионе. До большевистской революции 1917 года современные, секулярные идеи джадидизма встретили сопротивление как со стороны русских, так и со стороны узбекских ханов, у которых были разные причины бояться этого движения. После 1900 года ханства продолжали пользоваться определенной степенью автономии во внутренних делах. Однако в конечном итоге они подчинялись русскому генерал-губернатору в Ташкенте, который правил регионом от имени царя Николая II. Российская империя осуществляла прямой контроль над обширными территориями в Центральной Азии, позволяя ханствам управлять значительной частью своих исконных земель самостоятельно. В этот период большое количество русских, привлеченных климатом и доступной землей, иммигрировали в Центральную Азию. После 1900 года усиление контактов с русской цивилизацией начало влиять на жизнь жителей Центральной Азии в крупных населенных пунктах, где поселились русские. Летом 1916 года в ряде поселений в восточном Узбекистане произошли насильственные демонстрации против нового российского указа, отменяющего иммунитет центральноазиатов от призыва на военную службу в Первую мировую войну. Последовали репрессии, и борьба распространилась из Узбекистана на территорию Кыргызстана и Казахстана. Там российская конфискация пастбищ уже вызвала враждебность, отсутствовавшую в узбекском населении, которое было обеспокоено главным образом сохранением своих прав. После чистки националистов правительственные и партийные ряды в Узбекистане были заполнены людьми, лояльными московскому правительству. Экономическая политика была сосредоточена на поставках хлопка в остальную часть Советского Союза в ущерб диверсифицированному сельскому хозяйству. Во время Второй мировой войны многие промышленные предприятия из Европейской России были эвакуированы в Узбекистан и другие части Центральной Азии. Вместе с заводами пришла новая волна русских и других европейских рабочих. Поскольку коренные узбеки в основном были заняты в сельскохозяйственных регионах страны, городская концентрация иммигрантов все больше русифицировала Ташкент и другие крупные города. Во время войны, помимо русских, переехавших в Узбекистан, другие национальности, такие как крымские татары, чеченцы и корейцы, были высланы в республику, поскольку Москва считала их подрывными элементами в Европейской России.
Near the end of the sixteenth century, the Uzbek states of Bukhara and Khorazm began to weaken because of their endless wars against each other and the Persians and because of strong competition for the throne among the khans in power and their heirs. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Shaybanid Dynasty was replaced by the Janid Dynasty. Meanwhile, in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries new dynasties led the khanates to a period of recovery. Those dynasties were the Qongrats in Khiva, the Manghits in Bukhara, and the Mins in Quqon. These new dynasties established centralized states with standing armies and new irrigation works. However, their rise coincided with the ascendance of Russian influence in the Kazahk steppes and the establishment of British rule in India. By the early nineteenth century, the region was the scene of the "Great Game", a series of political maneuverers between the two powers to prevent the other from gaining power in Central Asia. The Central Asian powers took little notice of this political bickering between the European powers, continuing to wage wars of conquest amongst themselves. As soon as the Russian conquest of the Caucasus was completed in the late 1850s, the Russian Ministry of War began to send military forces against the Central Asian khanates. Three major population centers of the khanates—Tashkent, Kokand, and Samarqand — were captured in 1865, 1876, and 1868, respectively. In 1868 the Khanate of Bukhara signed a treaty with Russia making Bukhara a Russian protectorate. In 1868 the Khanate of Kokand was confined to the Ferghana Valley and in 1876 it was annexed. The Khanate of Khiva became a Russian protectorate in 1873. Thus by 1876 the entire territory comprising present day Uzbekistan either had fallen under direct Russian rule or had become a protectorate of Russia. The treaties establishing the protectorates over Bukhara and Khiva gave Russia control of the foreign relations of these states and gave Russian merchants important concessions in foreign trade; the khanates retained control of their own internal affairs. Tashkent and Quqon fell directly under a Russian governor general. The only avenue for Uzbek resistance to Russian rule became the Pan Turkish movement, also known as Jadidism, which had arisen in the 1860s among intellectuals who sought to preserve indigenous Islamic Central Asian culture from Russian encroachment. By 1900 Jadidism had developed into the region's first major movement of political resistance. Until the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, the modern, secular ideas of Jadidism faced resistance from both the Russians and the Uzbek khans, who had differing reasons to fear the movement. After 1900 the khanates continued to enjoy a certain degree of autonomy in their internal affairs. However, they ultimately were subservient to the Russian governor general in Tashkent, who ruled the region in the name of Tsar Nicholas II. The Russian Empire exercised direct control over large tracts of territory in Central Asia, allowing the khanates to rule a large portion of their ancient lands for themselves. In this period, large numbers of Russians, attracted by the climate and the available land, immigrated into Central Asia. After 1900, increased contact with Russian civilization began to affect the lives of Central Asians in the larger population centers where the Russians settled. In the summer of 1916, a number of settlements in eastern Uzbekistan were the sites of violent demonstrations against a new Russian decree canceling the Central Asians' immunity to conscription for duty in World War I. Reprisals of increasing violence ensued, and the struggle spread from Uzbekistan into Kyrgyz and Kazak territory. There, Russian confiscation of grazing land already had created animosity not present in the Uzbek population, which was concerned mainly with preserving its rights. Following the purge of the nationalists, the government and party ranks in Uzbekistan were filled with people loyal to the Moscow government. Economic policy emphasized the supply of cotton to the rest of the Soviet Union, to the exclusion of diversified agriculture. During World War II, many industrial plants from European Russia were evacuated to Uzbekistan and other parts of Central Asia. With the factories came a new wave of Russian and other European workers. Because native Uzbeks were mostly occupied in the country's agricultural regions, the urban concentration of immigrants increasingly Russified Tashkent and other large cities. During the war years, in addition to the Russians who moved to Uzbekistan, other nationalities such as Crimean Tatars, Chechens, and Koreans were exiled to the republic because Moscow saw them as subversive elements in European Russia. Unreliable source: date=January 2019 Russian was the language of state, and Russification was the prerequisite for obtaining a position in the government or the party. Those who did not or could not abandon their Uzbek lifestyles and identities were excluded from leading roles in official Uzbek society. Because of these conditions, Uzbekistan gained a reputation as one of the most politically conservative republics in the Soviet Union. In 1989 ethnic animosities came to a head in the Fergana Valley, where local Meskhetian Turks were assaulted by Uzbeks, and in 1990 in the Kyrgyz city of Osh Uzbek and Kyrgyz youth clashed. Moscow's response to this violence was a reduction of the purges and the appointment of Islam Karimov as first secretary of the Communist Party of Uzbekistan. The appointment of Karimov, who was not a member of the local party elite, signified that Moscow wanted to lessen tensions by appointing an outsider who had not been involved in the purges. Although Uzbekistan had not sought independence, when events brought them to that point, Karimov and his government moved quickly to adapt themselves to the new realities. They realized that under the Commonwealth of Independent States, the loose federation proposed to replace the Soviet Union, no central government would provide the subsidies to which Uzbek governments had become accustomed for the previous 70 years. Old economic ties would have to be reexamined and new markets and economic mechanisms established. Although Uzbekistan as defined by the Soviets had never had independent foreign relations, diplomatic relations would have to be established with foreign countries quickly. Investment and foreign credits would have to be attracted, a formidable challenge in light of Western restrictions on financial aid to nations restricting expression of political dissent. For example, the suppression of internal dissent in 1992 and 1993 had an unexpectedly chilling effect on foreign investment. Uzbekistan's image in the West alternated in the ensuing years between an attractive, stable experimental zone for investment and a post Soviet dictatorship whose human rights record made financial aid inadvisable. Such alternation exerted strong influence on the political and economic fortunes of the new republic in its first five years. On July 30, 2004, terrorists bombed the embassies of Israel and the United States in Tashkent, killing three people and wounding several. The Jihad Group in Uzbekistan posted a claim of responsibility for those attacks on a website linked to Al Qaeda. Terrorism experts say the reason for the attacks is Uzbekistan's support of the United States and its War on terror. In May 2005, several hundred demonstrators were killed when Uzbek troops fired into a crowd protesting against the imprisonment of 23 local businessmen. (For further details, see 2005 Andijan Unrest.) In July 2005, the Uzbek government gave the US 180 days' notice to leave the airbase it had leased in Uzbekistan. A Russian airbase and a German airbase remain. In December 2007 Islam A. Karimov was reelected to power in a fraudulent election. Western election observers noted that the election failed to meet many OSCE benchmarks for democratic elections, the elections were held in a strictly controlled environment, and there had been no real opposition since all the candidates publicly endorsed the incumbent. Human rights activists reported various cases of multiple voting throughout the country as well as official pressure on voters at polling stations to cast ballots for Karimov. The BBC reported that many people were afraid to vote for anyone other than the president. According to the constitution Karimov was ineligible to stand as a candidate, having already served two consecutive presidential terms and thus his candidature was illegal. Around 300 dissidents were in jail in 2007, including Jamshid Karimov, the president's 41 year old nephew. In 2016, Islam Karimov died after suffered with stroke for almost a week earlier, while still being a president and was replaced by Shavkat Mirziyoyev, who was Uzbekistan's interim leader since the death of Islam Karimov. In December 2016, Shavkat Mirziyoyev won the presidential election with signs of fraud. On 6 November 2021, President Shavkat Mirziyoyev was sworn into his second term in office, after gaining a landslide victory in presidential election. On 1 July 2022 protests broke out in the autonomous region of Karakalpakstan over proposed amendments to the Constitution of Uzbekistan which would have ended Karakalpakstan's status as an autonomous region of Uzbekistan and right to secede from Uzbekistan via referendum. They were brutally suppressed, at least 18 people were killed.
Ненадежный источник: дата=январь 2019 г. Русский язык был языком государства, и русификация была необходимым условием для получения должности в правительстве или партии. Те, кто не мог или не хотел отказываться от своего узбекского образа жизни и идентичности, были исключены из руководящих должностей в официальном узбекском обществе. В связи с этими условиями Узбекистан приобрел репутацию одной из самых политически консервативных республик в Советском Союзе. В 1989 году этническая вражда достигла апогея в Ферганской долине, где местные мескитинские турки подверглись нападению со стороны узбеков, а в 1990 году в киргизском городе Ош произошли столкновения между узбекской и киргизской молодежью. Реакцией Москвы на это насилие стало сокращение чисток и назначение Ислама Каримова первым секретарем Коммунистической партии Узбекистана. Назначение Каримова, который не был членом местной партийной элиты, означало, что Москва хотела снизить напряженность, назначив постороннего человека, не участвовавшего в чистках. Хотя Узбекистан не стремился к независимости, когда события привели к этому, Каримов и его правительство быстро адаптировались к новой реальности. Они поняли, что в рамках Содружества Независимых Государств, рыхлой федерации, призванной заменить Советский Союз, центральное правительство больше не будет предоставлять субсидии, к которым узбекские правительства привыкли в течение предыдущих 70 лет. Старые экономические связи придется пересмотреть, а новые рынки и экономические механизмы создать. Хотя Узбекистан, как он был определен советской властью, никогда не имел независимых внешних связей, дипломатические отношения с иностранными государствами придется быстро установить. Необходимо будет привлекать инвестиции и иностранные кредиты, что будет сложной задачей в свете западных ограничений на финансовую помощь странам, ограничивающим свободу выражения политического несогласия. Например, подавление внутреннего несогласия в 1992 и 1993 годах неожиданно негативно сказалось на иностранных инвестициях. В последующие годы имидж Узбекистана на Западе колебался между привлекательной, стабильной экспериментальной зоной для инвестиций и постсоветской диктатурой, чей послужной список в области прав человека делал финансовую помощь нецелесообразной. Такие колебания оказали сильное влияние на политические и экономические успехи новой республики в первые пять лет ее существования. 30 июля 2004 года террористы взорвали посольства Израиля и Соединенных Штатов в Ташкенте, убив трех человек и ранив несколько. Группа джихадистов в Узбекистане взяла на себя ответственность за эти нападения на веб-сайте, связанном с А...
Near the end of the sixteenth century, the Uzbek states of Bukhara and Khorazm began to weaken because of their endless wars against each other and the Persians and because of strong competition for the throne among the khans in power and their heirs. At the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Shaybanid Dynasty was replaced by the Janid Dynasty. Meanwhile, in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries new dynasties led the khanates to a period of recovery. Those dynasties were the Qongrats in Khiva, the Manghits in Bukhara, and the Mins in Quqon. These new dynasties established centralized states with standing armies and new irrigation works. However, their rise coincided with the ascendance of Russian influence in the Kazahk steppes and the establishment of British rule in India. By the early nineteenth century, the region was the scene of the "Great Game", a series of political maneuverers between the two powers to prevent the other from gaining power in Central Asia. The Central Asian powers took little notice of this political bickering between the European powers, continuing to wage wars of conquest amongst themselves. As soon as the Russian conquest of the Caucasus was completed in the late 1850s, the Russian Ministry of War began to send military forces against the Central Asian khanates. Three major population centers of the khanates—Tashkent, Kokand, and Samarqand — were captured in 1865, 1876, and 1868, respectively. In 1868 the Khanate of Bukhara signed a treaty with Russia making Bukhara a Russian protectorate. In 1868 the Khanate of Kokand was confined to the Ferghana Valley and in 1876 it was annexed. The Khanate of Khiva became a Russian protectorate in 1873. Thus by 1876 the entire territory comprising present day Uzbekistan either had fallen under direct Russian rule or had become a protectorate of Russia. The treaties establishing the protectorates over Bukhara and Khiva gave Russia control of the foreign relations of these states and gave Russian merchants important concessions in foreign trade; the khanates retained control of their own internal affairs. Tashkent and Quqon fell directly under a Russian governor general. The only avenue for Uzbek resistance to Russian rule became the Pan Turkish movement, also known as Jadidism, which had arisen in the 1860s among intellectuals who sought to preserve indigenous Islamic Central Asian culture from Russian encroachment. By 1900 Jadidism had developed into the region's first major movement of political resistance. Until the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, the modern, secular ideas of Jadidism faced resistance from both the Russians and the Uzbek khans, who had differing reasons to fear the movement. After 1900 the khanates continued to enjoy a certain degree of autonomy in their internal affairs. However, they ultimately were subservient to the Russian governor general in Tashkent, who ruled the region in the name of Tsar Nicholas II. The Russian Empire exercised direct control over large tracts of territory in Central Asia, allowing the khanates to rule a large portion of their ancient lands for themselves. In this period, large numbers of Russians, attracted by the climate and the available land, immigrated into Central Asia. After 1900, increased contact with Russian civilization began to affect the lives of Central Asians in the larger population centers where the Russians settled. In the summer of 1916, a number of settlements in eastern Uzbekistan were the sites of violent demonstrations against a new Russian decree canceling the Central Asians' immunity to conscription for duty in World War I. Reprisals of increasing violence ensued, and the struggle spread from Uzbekistan into Kyrgyz and Kazak territory. There, Russian confiscation of grazing land already had created animosity not present in the Uzbek population, which was concerned mainly with preserving its rights. Following the purge of the nationalists, the government and party ranks in Uzbekistan were filled with people loyal to the Moscow government. Economic policy emphasized the supply of cotton to the rest of the Soviet Union, to the exclusion of diversified agriculture. During World War II, many industrial plants from European Russia were evacuated to Uzbekistan and other parts of Central Asia. With the factories came a new wave of Russian and other European workers. Because native Uzbeks were mostly occupied in the country's agricultural regions, the urban concentration of immigrants increasingly Russified Tashkent and other large cities. During the war years, in addition to the Russians who moved to Uzbekistan, other nationalities such as Crimean Tatars, Chechens, and Koreans were exiled to the republic because Moscow saw them as subversive elements in European Russia. Unreliable source: date=January 2019 Russian was the language of state, and Russification was the prerequisite for obtaining a position in the government or the party. Those who did not or could not abandon their Uzbek lifestyles and identities were excluded from leading roles in official Uzbek society. Because of these conditions, Uzbekistan gained a reputation as one of the most politically conservative republics in the Soviet Union. In 1989 ethnic animosities came to a head in the Fergana Valley, where local Meskhetian Turks were assaulted by Uzbeks, and in 1990 in the Kyrgyz city of Osh Uzbek and Kyrgyz youth clashed. Moscow's response to this violence was a reduction of the purges and the appointment of Islam Karimov as first secretary of the Communist Party of Uzbekistan. The appointment of Karimov, who was not a member of the local party elite, signified that Moscow wanted to lessen tensions by appointing an outsider who had not been involved in the purges. Although Uzbekistan had not sought independence, when events brought them to that point, Karimov and his government moved quickly to adapt themselves to the new realities. They realized that under the Commonwealth of Independent States, the loose federation proposed to replace the Soviet Union, no central government would provide the subsidies to which Uzbek governments had become accustomed for the previous 70 years. Old economic ties would have to be reexamined and new markets and economic mechanisms established. Although Uzbekistan as defined by the Soviets had never had independent foreign relations, diplomatic relations would have to be established with foreign countries quickly. Investment and foreign credits would have to be attracted, a formidable challenge in light of Western restrictions on financial aid to nations restricting expression of political dissent. For example, the suppression of internal dissent in 1992 and 1993 had an unexpectedly chilling effect on foreign investment. Uzbekistan's image in the West alternated in the ensuing years between an attractive, stable experimental zone for investment and a post Soviet dictatorship whose human rights record made financial aid inadvisable. Such alternation exerted strong influence on the political and economic fortunes of the new republic in its first five years. On July 30, 2004, terrorists bombed the embassies of Israel and the United States in Tashkent, killing three people and wounding several. The Jihad Group in Uzbekistan posted a claim of responsibility for those attacks on a website linked to Al Qaeda. Terrorism experts say the reason for the attacks is Uzbekistan's support of the United States and its War on terror. In May 2005, several hundred demonstrators were killed when Uzbek troops fired into a crowd protesting against the imprisonment of 23 local businessmen. (For further details, see 2005 Andijan Unrest.) In July 2005, the Uzbek government gave the US 180 days' notice to leave the airbase it had leased in Uzbekistan. A Russian airbase and a German airbase remain. In December 2007 Islam A. Karimov was reelected to power in a fraudulent election. Western election observers noted that the election failed to meet many OSCE benchmarks for democratic elections, the elections were held in a strictly controlled environment, and there had been no real opposition since all the candidates publicly endorsed the incumbent. Human rights activists reported various cases of multiple voting throughout the country as well as official pressure on voters at polling stations to cast ballots for Karimov. The BBC reported that many people were afraid to vote for anyone other than the president. According to the constitution Karimov was ineligible to stand as a candidate, having already served two consecutive presidential terms and thus his candidature was illegal. Around 300 dissidents were in jail in 2007, including Jamshid Karimov, the president's 41 year old nephew. In 2016, Islam Karimov died after suffered with stroke for almost a week earlier, while still being a president and was replaced by Shavkat Mirziyoyev, who was Uzbekistan's interim leader since the death of Islam Karimov. In December 2016, Shavkat Mirziyoyev won the presidential election with signs of fraud. On 6 November 2021, President Shavkat Mirziyoyev was sworn into his second term in office, after gaining a landslide victory in presidential election. On 1 July 2022 protests broke out in the autonomous region of Karakalpakstan over proposed amendments to the Constitution of Uzbekistan which would have ended Karakalpakstan's status as an autonomous region of Uzbekistan and right to secede from Uzbekistan via referendum. They were brutally suppressed, at least 18 people were killed.
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Кёртис, Гленн Э., редактор. Страноведческое исследование: Узбекистан. Федеральное исследовательское управление Библиотеки Конгресса (март 1996 г.). В данной статье использован текст из этого источника, который находится в общественном достоянии.