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Form of government with two individuals as leaders

Diarchy (from Greek , di , "double", and , arkhía, "ruled"), duarchy, or duumvirate is a form of government characterized by corule, with two people ruling a polity together either lawfully or de facto, by collusion and force. The leaders of such a system are usually known as corulers. Historically, diarchy particularly referred to the system of shared rule in British India and tandemocracy, are now used more generally to refer to any system of joint rule or office. A monarchy temporarily controlled by two or more people is, however, usually distinguished as a coregency. Corule is one of the oldest forms of government. Historical examples include the Pandyan dynasty of Tamilakam, Sparta's joint kingship, the Roman Republic's consuls, Carthage's Judges, and several ancient Polynesian societies. Systems of inheritance that often led to corule in Germanic and Dacian monarchies may be included as well, as may the dual occupants of the imperial title of the Inca Empire, or its system of succession. Modern examples of diarchies are Andorra, whose princes are the President of France and the Bishop of Urgell in Catalonia; and San Marino, whose republic is led by two Captains Regent.

Andorra is a parliamentary co principality. Its princes are (ex officio) the French president and the bishop of Urgell in Catalonia, Spain. Since 1962, the French president has been elected by universal suffrage within France. The bishop of the diocese of Urgell is appointed by the Roman Catholic pope.

The 2008 Constitution affirms Bhutan's commitment to a traditional dual government sharing power between the Druk Gyalpo ("King") and the Buddhist religious authorities led by the Je Khenpo. In practice, however, the religious leaders function more as advisors to the kings than as corulers. Both arms of the traditional dual government are in practice less important than the Parliament and (single) Prime Minister.

Under the terms of the 1998 Good Friday Agreement intended to end conflict in Northern Ireland, the First Minister and deputy First Minister serve as joint heads of the area's executive. Both positions exercise identical executive powers; however they are not heads of state.

The captains regent of San Marino are elected every six months by the Sammarinese parliament, the Grand and General Council. They serve as heads of state and are normally chosen from opposing parties.

After the 2019–2021 Israeli political crisis, the Basic Law of Israel's government underwent a major change. A system of two prime ministers, that can be appointed at the same time by the Knesset, was established. According to the new method, there is an Alternate Prime Minister of Israel in addition to the main and declared one. After half of the government's term, the two prime ministers change positions and status as part of a rotation government. During the term, the government's roles and duties are divided between the two prime ministers and each one of them is entitled to remove ministers without the other's interference.

Named as the India Secretary for the Lloyd George ministry, Edwin Samuel Montagu made the "Grand Declaration" on 20 August 1917 that British policy would henceforth be "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self governing institutions". Montagu and Viscount Chelmsford, the Governor General of India, then made an extensive tour of the subcontinent in 1917 and 1918. The Montague–Chelmsford Report's recommendations formed the basis for the Government of India Act 1919 that established "diarchy" in British India. Under that act, the executive was to be headed by a governor appointed by the Secretary of State, who could consult the Governor General. The governor was responsible to the Secretary of State for acts of omission and commission. He was to maintain law and order in the province and ensure that the provincial administration worked smoothly. In respect of transferred subjects, he was to be assisted by his ministers whereas reserved subjects were to be administered by the Governor General and his executive council. The members of the Executive Council were to be appointed by the Secretary of State and were responsible to him in all matters. There were certain matters that he was to administer at his own discretion, in which he was responsible to the Secretary of State. Each councillor was to remain in office for a period of four years. Their salaries and service conditions were not subject to the vote of provincial legislature. All decisions in the council were to be taken by a majority of votes, the Governor being able to break ties.

During the establishment of the modern state of Samoa in 1962, power was shared between the two chiefs Malietoa Tanumafili II and Tupua Tamasese Meaʻole. Meaʻole died the next year, after which the country functioned as a monarchy until the death of Tanumafili and a republic thereafter.

Following a coup d'état in 1964, former Vice President René Barrientos rose to power as president of the military junta. The following year, faced with discontent from loyalists of General Alfredo Ovando Candía, Barrientos promulgated the co presidency between himself and Ovando Candía. The pair ruled as dual presidents until 1966 when Barrientos resigned in order to run in that year's general election.

The Ghurid Empire was an established diarchy between Ghiyath al Din Muhammad and Muhammad of Ghor. The diarchy lasted from 1173 to 1203 until the death of Ghiyath al Din, leaving his ruler, Muhammad sole ruler of the Ghurid empire.

Shared power arrangements within a modern bureaucracy may also be known as a "diarchy" or "duumvirate". Examples include the joint authority of the Chief of the Defence Force and the Secretary of the Department of Defence over the Australian Defence Organisation.

The status of monarchs is sometimes impugned by accusations of corule when an advisor, family member, lover, or friend appears to have taken too great a hand in government. Lü Buwei in Chinese history and François Leclerc du Tremblay in France are famous examples of "éminences grises" who controlled much of their countries' policies. In British history, George VI's reign was mocked as a "split level matriarchy in pants" owing to the supposed influence of his mother, Queen Mary and his wife Queen Elizabeth.

In addition to actual sharing of political power between religious and military leaders, as occurred in Tibet and Bhutan, the great soft power of a religious leader such as the Pope of the Catholic Church over a devout country can sometimes be described as a form of diarchy or corule.

The Kingdom of Eswatini is a diarchy in which the King (Ngwenyama) rules in conjunction with his mother, the queen mother (Ndlovukati) in their capacity as traditional rulers. Constitutionally, however, the King is the sole head of state, though it is often argued that the giving of authority wholesale to the royal male in this way is a neo traditionalistic as opposed to truly traditional custom.

In The Gondoliers by Gilbert and Sullivan, the fictional land of Barataria is ruled jointly for a while by two kings, who happen to be the gondoliers themselves. Umbar, in the works of J. R. R. Tolkien, was ruled by a duumvirate. In its earliest years, Gondor was also ruled jointly by two kings, the two sons of Elendil. He himself was king of its sister realm Arnor, and served as high king over both realms. The Omaticaya, the Na'vi clan at the center of the film Avatar, are traditionally led by a pair of married tribal chiefs. One of them, the husband, oversees political and military matters while the other one, the wife, is in charge of spiritual and otherwise ceremonial affairs. The orbital colony New New York, in the Worlds trilogy by Joe Haldeman, is jointly governed by an elected Policy Coordinator and Engineering Coordinator. The Federated Commonwealths of America, in A Different Flesh by Harry Turtledove, is modelled heavily on the Roman Republic, governed by two chief executives styled as Censors (although the offices are more akin to the position of Consul). With each one being able to veto the actions of the other, the election of two politically opposed Censors was intended as a check on executive power. Censors serve a single non renewable five year term and (alongside commonwealth governors) become life long serving members of the Senate upon leaving office. In Avenue 5, it is suggested that the Office of President of the United States became a duumvirate comprising a human and an artificial intelligence (reminiscent of a virtual assistant). In My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic, the nation of Equestria where most of the series takes place is shown to be a diarchy. While the older Princess Celestia is depicted as ruling on her own in the first season of the series, she is later joined by her younger sister Princess Luna as a co ruler. By the end of Legend of Korra, the Northern Water Tribe becomes a diarchy, ruled by the twins Desna and Eska, cousins to the title character.