Марокко архитектурасы: тарих пен мәдениеттердің үйлесімі

Architecture in Morocco

Moroccan architecture reflects Morocco's diverse geography and long history, marked by successive waves of settlers through both migration and military conquest. This architectural heritage includes ancient Roman sites, historic Islamic architecture, local vernacular architecture, 20th century French colonial architecture, and modern architecture. Much of Morocco's traditional architecture is marked by the style that developed during the Islamic period, from the 7th century onward. This architecture was part of a wider tradition of "Moorish" or western Islamic architecture, which characterized both the Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia) and al Andalus (Muslim Spain and Portugal). It blended influences from Amazigh (Berber) culture in North Africa, pre Islamic Spain (Roman, Byzantine, and Visigothic), and contemporary artistic currents in the Islamic Middle East to elaborate a unique style over centuries with recognizable features such as the horseshoe arch, riad gardens, and elaborate geometric and arabesque motifs in wood, carved stucco, and zellij tilework. Although Moroccan Amazigh architecture is not strictly separate from the rest of Moroccan architecture, many structures and architectural styles are distinctively associated with traditionally Amazigh or Amazigh dominated regions such as the Atlas Mountains and the Sahara and pre Sahara regions. These mostly rural regions are marked by numerous kasbahs (fortresses) and ksour (fortified villages) shaped by local geography and social structures, of which one of the most famous is Ait Benhaddou. They are typically made of rammed earth and decorated with local geometric motifs. Far from being isolated from other historical artistic currents around them, the Amazigh peoples of Morocco (and across North Africa) adapted the forms and ideas of Islamic architecture to their own conditions and in turn contributed to the formation of Western Islamic art, particularly during their political domination of the region over the centuries of Almoravid, Almohad, and Marinid rule. Modernist architecture is also evident in contemporary constructions, not only for regular everyday structures but also in major prestige projects.

Although less well documented, Morocco's earliest historical periods were dominated by Berber groups and kingdoms, up to the Berber kingdom of Mauretania. In the 7th or 8th century BC the Phoenicians founded a colony of Lixus on the Atlantic coast, which later came under Carthaginian, Mauretanian, and eventually Roman control. Other important towns such as Tingis (present day Tangier) and Sala (Chellah) were founded and developed by Phoenicians or Mauretanian Berbers. Under Mauretanian rule its streets were laid out in a grid plan and may have included a palace complex and fortified walls. Large scale Roman architecture was relatively rare; for example, there is only one known amphitheater in the region, at Lixus. It continued to be an urban center even after the end of Roman occupation in 285, with evidence of Latin Christian, Berber, and Byzantine (Eastern Roman) occupation.

In the early 8th century the region became steadily integrated into the emerging Muslim world, beginning with the military incursions of Musa ibn Nusayr and becoming more definitive with the advent of the Idrisid dynasty at the end of that century. The arrival of Islam was extremely significant as it developed a new set of societal norms (although some of them were familiar to Judeo Christian societies) and institutions which therefore shaped, to some extent, the types of buildings being built and the aesthetic or spiritual values that guided their design. The Idrisids founded the city of Fes, which became their capital and the major political and cultural center of early Islamic Morocco. In this early period Morocco also absorbed waves of immigrants from Tunisia and al Andalus (Muslim ruled Spain and Portugal), who brought in cultural and artistic influences from their home countries. These reflected early influences from major monuments like the Great Mosque of Kairouan and the Great Mosque of Cordoba. In the 10th century much of northern Morocco came directly within the sphere of influence of the Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba, with competition from the Fatimid Caliphate further east. These two empires were responsible for establishing a new imperial capital at Marrakesh and the Almohads also began construction of a monumental capital in Rabat. The Almoravids adopted the architectural developments of al Andalus, such as the complex interlacing arches of the Great Mosque in Cordoba and of the Aljaferia palace in Zaragoza, while also introducing new ornamental techniques from the east such as muqarnas ("stalactite" or "honeycomb" carvings). The Almohad Kutubiyya and Tinmal mosques are often considered the prototypes of later Moroccan mosques. Like the Almohads before them, the Marinids created a separate palace city for themselves; this time, outside Fes. Later known as Fes Jdid, this new fortified citadel had a set of double walls for defense, a new Grand Mosque, a vast royal garden to the north known as el Mosara, residences for government officials, and barracks for military garrisons. Later on, probably in the 15th century, a new Jewish quarter was created on its south side, the first mellah in Morocco, prefiguring the creation of similar districts in other Moroccan cities in later periods. The architectural style under the Marinids was very closely related to that found in the Emirate of Granada, in Spain, under the contemporary Nasrid dynasty. He hired European architects to design the city, resulting in a relatively unique Moroccan built city with Western European architecture, particularly in the style of its fortifications. Similar coastal fortifications or bastions, usually known as a sqala, were built at the same time in other port cities like Anfa (present day Casablanca), Rabat, Larache, and Tangier.

In the 20th century, Moroccan architecture and cities were also shaped by the period of French colonial control (1912–1956) as well as Spanish colonial rule in the north of the country (1912–1958). This era introduced new architectural styles such as Art Nouveau, Art Deco, and other modernist styles, in addition to European ideas about urban planning imposed by colonial authorities. The European architects and planners also drew on traditional Moroccan architecture to develop a style sometimes referred to as Neo Mauresque (similar to Neo Moorish) or Arabisant ("Arabizing"), blending contemporary European architecture with a pastiche of traditional Moroccan architecture, with the encouragement of the French resident general Hubert Lyautey. The French moved the capital to Rabat and founded a number of Villes Nouvelles ("New Cities") next to the historic medinas (old walled cities) to act as new administrative centers, which have since grown beyond the old cities. In particular, Casablanca was developed into a major port and quickly became the country's most populous urban center. Similar architecture also appeared in other major cities like Rabat and Tangier, with examples such as the Gran Teatro Cervantes in Tangier and the Bank al Maghrib and post office buildings in downtown Rabat. Elsewhere, the smaller southern town of Sidi Ifni is also notable for Art Deco architecture dating from the Spanish occupation. Elie Azagury became the first Moroccan modernist architect in the 1950s. In the later 20th century and into the 21st century, contemporary Moroccan architecture also continued to pay tribute to the country's traditional architecture. In some cases, international architects were recruited to design Moroccan style buildings for major royal projects such as the Mausoleum of Mohammed V in Rabat and the massive Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca. The traditional Moroccan style or imitations of it have also been employed frequently in the design of new hotels. the National Library of Morocco in Rabat (2008), the award winning High Speed Train Station in Kenitra (opened in 2018), the Finance City Tower in Casablanca (completed in 2019 and one of the tallest buildings in Morocco), and the new Grand Theatre of Rabat by Zaha Hadid (due to be completed in late 2019).

As with the rest of the Mediterranean world, the culture and monuments of Classical Antiquity and of Late Antiquity had an important influence on the architecture of the Islamic world that came after them. In Morocco, the former Roman city of Volubilis acted as the first Idrisid capital before the foundation of Fes. In other examples, the vegetal and floral motifs of Late Antiquity formed one of the bases from which Islamic era arabesque motifs were derived. This aniconism in Islamic culture caused artists to explore non figural art, and created a general aesthetic shift toward mathematically based decoration, such as geometric patterns, as well as other relatively abstract motifs like arabesques. While figurative images did continue to appear in Islamic art, by the 14th century these were generally absent in the architecture of the western regions of the Islamic world like Morocco. Aside from the initial changes brought about by the arrival of Islam, Moroccan culture and architecture continued afterwards to adopt certain ideas and imports from the eastern parts of the Islamic world. These include some of the institutions and building types that became characteristic of the historic Muslim world. For example, bimaristans, historical equivalents of hospitals, first originated further east in Iraq, with the first one being built by Harun al Rashid (between 786 and 809). They spread westward and first appeared in Morocco around the late 12th century when the Almohads founded a maristan in Marrakesh. Madrasas, another important institution, first originated in Iran in the early 11th century under Nizam al Mulk, and were progressively adopted further west. The first madrasa in Morocco (Madrasat as Saffarin) was built in Fes by the Marinids in 1271, and madrasas further proliferated in the 14th century. In terms of decorative motifs, muqarnas, a notable feature of Moroccan architecture introduced in the Almoravid period in the 12th century, This population transfer culminated in the waves of refugees that came after the fall of Granada in 1492, including many former elites and members of the Andalusi educated classes.) also traces the origins of some later architectural features directly to the complex arches of Al Hakam II's 10th century expansion of the mosque, namely the polylobed arches found throughout the region after the 10th century and the sebka motif which became ubiquitous in Moroccan architecture after the Almohad period (12th 13th centuries).]] The Amazigh peoples (commonly called "Berbers" in English) are a linguistically and ethnically diverse group of peoples who constitute the indigenous (pre Arab) inhabitants of North Africa. They continue to represent a large part of the population in Morocco. In addition to any local traditions of architecture, Amazigh peoples adapted the forms and ideas of Islamic architecture to their own conditions, Likewise, the landscapes of the Atlas mountains and oases regions of Morocco are marked by numerous kasbahs – or tighremt in Amazigh languages – which in this case refers to tall, fortified structures acting as forts, warehouses, and/or fortified residences. One important policy with long term consequences was the decision to largely forego redevelopment of existing historic cities and to deliberately preserve them as sites of historic heritage, still known today as the "medinas". Instead, the French administration built new modern cities (the Villes Nouvelles) just outside the old cities, where European settlers largely resided with modern Western style amenities. This was part of a larger "policy of association" adopted by Lyautey which favored various forms of indirect colonial rule by preserving local institutions and elites, in contrast with other French colonial policies that favored "assimilation". The desire to preserve historic cities was also consistent with one of the trends in European ideas about urban planning at the time which argued for the preservation of historic cities in Europe – ideas which Lyautey himself favored. This dahir included building standards which directly affected the architecture at that time, as follows:

Buildings could not be higher than four stories. Land use regulation required twenty percent of a planned area to be courtyards or gardens. Balconies must not overlook neighboring residences. Roofs of all buildings should be flat. The building regulations maintained the country's pre existing architectural features and balanced the rapid urbanization. Nonetheless, while this policy preserved historic monuments, it also had other consequences in the long term by stalling urban development in these heritage areas and causing housing shortages in some areas. which became the main port city and the country's largest city during this period. It is also known as "pisé" (from French) or "tabia" (from Arabic).) The technique is still in use today, though the composition and ratio of these materials has continued to change over time as some materials (like clay) have become relatively more costly than others (like gravel). As such, old structures of this type remain intact only insofar as they are continuously restored; some stretches of wall today appear brand new due to regular maintenance, while others are crumbling.

In addition to rammed earth, brick and (especially in desert regions) mudbrick were also common types of materials for the construction of houses, civic architecture, and mosques. often visually enhanced by the use of geometric patterns in their arrangement, sculpting, and painted decoration. Other types of wood were still occasionally used, however. The sculpted wood canopy of the Shrob ou Shouf Fountain in Marrakesh was made of palm wood, for example.

A very prominent and distinctive element of Moroccan and Moorish architecture is its heavy use of carved stucco for decoration across walls and ceilings. Although the exact patterns vary from case to case, the underlying principles have been constant for centuries and Moroccan craftsmen are still adept at making them today. is believed by some scholars to have originated with the large interlacing arches in the 10th century extension of the Great Mosque of Cordoba by Caliph al Hakam II. while historian Gabriel Camps dates its origins to the presence of Carthaginian culture in the first millennium BC. or in some cases mixed those traditions with local decorative traditions. Mosques could also frequently be accompanied by other facilities which served the community. This geographic alignment, however, varied greatly from period to period. Nowadays it is standard practice across the Muslim world that the direction of prayer is the direction of the shortest distance between oneself and the Kaaba in Mecca. In Morocco, this corresponds to a generally eastern orientation (varying slightly depending on your exact position). However, in early Islamic periods there were other interpretations of what the qibla should be. In the western Islamic world (the Maghreb and al Andalus), in particular, early mosques often had a southern orientation, as can be seen in major early mosques like the Great Mosque of Cordoba and the Qarawiyyin Mosque in Fes. This was based on a reported hadith of the Islamic prophet Muhammad which stated that "what is between the east and west is a qibla", as well as on a popular view that mosques should not be aligned towards the Kaaba but rather that they should follow the cardinal orientation of the Kaaba itself (which is a rectangular structure with its own geometric axes), which is in turn aligned according to certain astronomical references (e. g. its minor axis is aligned with the sunrise of the summer solstice). though later synagogues were built in other styles too. Notable examples of synagogues in Morocco include the Ibn Danan Synagogue in Fes, the Slat al Azama Synagogue in Marrakesh, or the Beth El Synagogue in Casablanca, though numerous other examples exist.

The madrasa was an institution which originated in northeastern Iran by the early 11th century and was progressively adopted further west. Finally, madrasas also played an important role in training the scholars and elites who operated the state bureaucracy. They typically included a mosque, school, and other charitable facilities. and especially Fes, partly thanks to their continued use by locals up to the present day. Among the better known examples of preserved historic hammams in Morocco is the 14th century Saffarin Hammam in Fes, which has recently undergone restoration and rehabilitation. The smoke generated by this furnace helped with heating the floors while excess smoke was evacuated through chimneys. Of the different rooms, only the changing room was heavily decorated with zellij, stucco, or carved wood. Marrakesh, located in a more arid environment, was supplied in large part by a system of khettaras, an ingenious and complex system by which an underground channel was dug beneath the slopes in the surrounding countryside until it reached the level of the phreatic zone.

A riad (also transliterated as riyad; رياض) is an interior garden found in many Moroccan mansions and palaces. It is normally rectangular and divided into four parts along its central axes, with a fountain at its middle.

Traditional Moroccan houses were typically centered around a courtyard or patio, often surrounded by a gallery, from which other rooms and sections branched off. This resulted in palace complexes with a sprawling layout; in some cases this was a consequence of multiple phases of construction taking place in different periods. These palaces often also included a number of normally public facilities such as bathhouses and mosques, thus practically making them self sufficient and self contained royal cities.

Defensive city walls were generally built out of rammed earth Prominent kasbahs of this kind include examples such as the Kasbah Telouet, Kasbah Amridil, Tamnougalt, and Kasbah Taourirt in Ouarzazate.

Agadirs were fortified granaries typically found in the desert, mountain, and oases regions of southern and eastern Morocco. They are one of the architectural types associated in particular with Amazigh architecture in North Africa. These structures typically consist of a solid outer stone wall, sometimes with fortification towers, inside of which are lines of small storage rooms.

A borj (برج) generally referred to a single fort, tower, or bastion, such as the Borj Nord in Fes. A ribat (رِبَـاط) usually referred to a countryside or frontier fortress ostensibly used by warriors fighting waging jihad on the edge of Islamic territory, though it also referred to a type of fortified "monastery" or spiritual retreat for Sufi adherents, not unlike a zawiya. A notable example, from an architectural point of view, is the Ribat of Tit south of El Jadida, which was originally constructed by one family in the 12th century. (Also notably, the name of the city of Rabat derives from its original name Ribat al Fath.)