Ақ маңдайлы капучин маймылы және оның түрлері

Common name for several monkey species

White fronted capuchin can refer to any of a number of species of gracile capuchin monkey which used to be considered as the single species Cebus albifrons. White fronted capuchins are found in seven different countries in South America: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, and Trinidad and Tobago. White fronted capuchins are medium sized monkeys with a light brown back and a creamy white underside. Like other capuchin monkeys, they are omnivorous, feeding primarily on fruits, invertebrates, other plant parts and sometimes small vertebrates. They are predated upon primarily by raptors and probably small cats, especially the margay, though snakes have been known to attack them. They are polygamous primates and live in fairly large groups of 15 to 35 individuals. Reproductive females give birth to a single young at biennial intervals. They maintain home ranges of and have complex vocal repertoires. They are among the few primates to have been observed crafting and utilising tools in the wild. White fronted capuchins are common and widespread, although their population may be declining. The decline is believed to be caused by human induced habitat loss and degradation, and hunting. In 2008 the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classified the Ecuadorian white fronted capuchin (C. equatorialis) and the Trinidad white fronted capuchin (formerly regarded as C. albifrons trinitatis) as "critically endangered," and the varied white fronted capuchin (Cebus versicolor) in Colombia as "endangered." The total population of the Trinidad subspecies was 61 at the last census.

Even when the white fronted capuchins were all considered to belong to a single species, there were problems with its name, description and type locality. The holotype does not exist; the original description by Alexander von Humboldt in 1812 describes an animal that is much darker (grayish) than those that exist close to the type locality, and the description includes a dark tail tip, a character that is completely unknown in any population of the species. Additionally, the animal which von Humboldt examined was a tame animal in Maipures, where the species is not found. The closest population is about three kilometers to the north, on the other side of the Tuparro River. Defler and Hernandez established a phenotype from the population that was called Cebus albifrons albifrons by Hernández C. and Cooper. Another problem has been that the taxon C. a. unicolor described by Spix (1823) and further defined by Hershkovitz was indistinguishable from C. a. albinos; the two are synonymous.

Hershkovitz (1949) originally named 13 subspecies, while Hernández Camacho and Cooper (1976) described eight subspecies for Colombia. Colin Groves assessed the species in 2001, further reducing the number. One notable subspecies outside of Colombia is the critically endangered Trinidad white fronted capuchin. The following subspecies were recognised by assessors working for the IUCN as of 2015. Ecuadorian white fronted capuchin, Cebus albifrons aequatorialis, found in western Ecuador and Peru (critically endangered). White fronted capuchin, Cebus albifrons albifrons, found in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Peru and Venezuela. Río Cesar white fronted capuchin, Cebus albifrons cesarae, found in Colombia. Shock headed capuchin, Cebus albifrons cuscinus, found in Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador and Peru. Santa Marta white fronted capuchin, Cebus albifrons malitiosus, found along the northern flanks of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in Colombia. Trinidad white fronted capuchin, Cebus albifrons trinitatis, 61 individuals estimated on the island of Trinidad in 2008 (critically endangered). Varied white fronted capuchin, Cebus albifrons versicolor, found in Colombia (endangered). The IUCN list differs from that by Groves (2005) in that Groves excluded C. a. cesarae and C. a. malitiosus but included C. a. unicolor as a subspecies. In the Handbook of the Mammals of the World (2013) Mittermeier and Rylands limit C. albifrons to gracile capuchins found in the upper Amazon basin in southern Venezuela, southern and eastern Colombia and northwest Brazil, based largely on the work of Jean Boubli, Thomas Defler and Jorge Hernández Camacho. The difficulties in identifying separate subspecies and species have been pronounced. Hernández Camacho and Cooper reported some specimens of capuchin from the Barranquilla animal market had supposedly come from the middle valley of the San Jorge River. It is difficult to determine whether these are white faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus) or white fronted capuchins. Intermediate characteristics include a dark crown that is high and removed from the forehead. The white parts on the face are more distinctively bald and the outside parts of the arms and legs are more clear; this suggests they are white headed capuchin. Some specimens of C. versicolor seen in the market at Magangué‚ and probably captured in the lower Cauca River, show similar tendencies to the above, except that there is no increase in the dark pigmentation. Based on these observations and on various "intermediate" specimens from northern Colombia, it is possible that an investigation of the contact zone between the white headed capuchin and white fronted capuchin ultimately could show that these forms are conspecific, or that some species of white fronted capuchin are actually more closely related to white faced capuchins than they are to other white fronted capuchins. Another critical zone for this analysis is an area in northeast Ecuador where C. aecuatoriales and white faced capuchins are found, although neither sympatric distributions or intergradation have as yet been determined.

Male white fronted capuchins usually weigh an average of and the females an average of , although a male on Mirití Paraná in Colombia weighed This primate is usually maroon white or palomino and creamy white. It has short fingers and an opposable thumb. Like other capuchins its premolars are large, and it has square shaped molar with a thick enamel to help with cracking nuts. Below are descriptions of the known species for Colombia. Humboldt's white fronted capuchin, Cebus albifrons, is found in eastern Vichada, close to the type locality, and was defined by von Humboldt using a tame animal maintained by humans (and a pig) in the village of Maipures. The original description of von Humboldt described an ashy gray animal with a black tail tip, characteristics that are not typical of any known population of white fronted capuchin. The C. albifrons located three kilometers to the north of Maipures are very light colored animals with yellowish or reddish tones, very similar to the population of Arauca. Spix' white fronted capuchin, Cebus unicolor is also very light colored with yellowish tones and was once thought to be a likely synonym of C. albifrons. One population of very pallid coloration is found in Arauca, the northern part of Boyacá and the eastern part of Norte de Santander and probably represents C. a. albifrons. The Río Cesar white fronted capuchin, Cebus cesarae is very light in color and quite well defined as a subspecies. "The cap is cinnamon or snuff brown; median dorsal region, forearm and forelag with orangeous and contrasted with sides of back and trunk; hairs of belly and chest ochracous orange to pale ochraceous buff and silvery; contrasting pale area of front extending over variable amounts of upper surface of shoulder and inner side of upper arm" (Hershkovitz, 1949). The Santa Marta white fronted capuchin, Cebus malitiosus, is characterized by a color that is rather dark brown over almost the entire body with yellowish shoulders. "Pale area of front less extensive, upperparts and limbs paler than in hypoleucus. Cap prout's brown, median dorsal region cinnamon brown, forearm and foreleg not markedly contrasting in color with back and sides of body; hairs of belly and chest ochraceous tawny to cinnamon brown and silvery; contrasting pale area of front extending well over upper surface of shoulder and inner side of upper arm" (Hershkovitz, 1949). The varied white fronted capuchin, Cebus versicolor, is a complex which includes dark populations and lighter populations. It includes the former subspecies C. a. pleei. and was once thought to also include the Sierra de Perijá white fronted capuchin, C. leucocephalus. Herskovitz's description of C. a. pleei is of a very reddish animal, particularly in its limbs while his description of C. a. versicolor is a lighter red. He described C. a. leucocephalus as a dark brown animal with reddish tonalities in the hind legs. Nevertheless, Hernández Camacho and Cooper discussed evidence that the three subspecies (C. a. leucocephalus, C. a. pleei and C. a. versicolor) could be subsumed into one subspecies (C. a. versicolor), since the variations seem to be found in a very well defined zone and even in the same groups, close to Barrancabermeja on the eastern bank of the middle Magdalena River in the Department of Santander. This suggested to them that the dark phase (C. a. leucocephalus) and the light phase (C. a. pleei) are extremes of an intermediate (C. a. versicolor). Boubli's research suggested that C. a. pleei may be synonymous with C. versicolor but was more likely synonymous with C. cesarae, which he found to be closely related to C. versicolor. Humboldt's white fronted capuchin, Cebus albifrons, is very common in the eastern half of El Tuparro National Park, Colombia. It is less common in Amacayacu National Park. Cebus a. yuracus is known south of the Putumayo River. Cebus versicolor is widespread on the middle Magdalena River and is observable in preserved woodlots of protected fincas. Cebus malitiosus is easy to observe in Tayrona National Park, east of Santa Marta. Cebus a. cesarae can be located in the Serranía del Perijá east of Valledupar, Cesar also in Colombia.

White fronted capuchins have been studied in Colombia by Defler, in two different sites in Peru by Soini and Terborgh, in Trinidad by Phillips and in Ecuador by Matthews. In eastern Vichada, Colombia, white fronted capuchins are found in large groups of around 35 individuals, while to the south in closed forest (perhaps as a result of competition with the tufted capuchin) they have an average group size of 8–15 individuals. A group in Vichada used a home range of about , while Terborgh found a home range of more than and Matthews calculated Near the type locality in gallery forest and islands of forest in Vichada, they have an ecological density of around 30 individuals/km2. In forests with closed canopy in Colombia and in southern Vichada, many areas have very low densities. Around the lower Apaporis River, for example, densities are less than one individual/km2 and the size of the groups is around 15 individuals. Low densities in many parts of the Colombian Amazon make it difficult to detect the presence of the species in many parts. Terborgh found an average of for the day range of a group, and calculated the following time budget of the study group in Manú National Park, Peru: 18% rest, 21% travel, 22% feeding on plant material and 39% feeding on insects; total feeding 61%. Matthews however, registered 54% foraging, 25% moving and 21% feeding and socializing. They are primarily quadrupedal, although they utilize a great variety of gallops, jumps, falls and climbing. During certain times of the year they are extremely terrestrial, especially when there is a scarcity of available fruits and the troop must search for arthropods in the dry leaves of the forest floor. In some parts of the Llanos Orientales they are found walking over the grassy savanna between forests, leaving well beaten trails. In Vichada it uses preferential trees for sleeping at heights of The palm Attalea regia is often used for sleeping in this zone.

All species of capuchin tend to have a rather similar diet in broad terms; they are omnivores, eating fruits and small invertebrates, small vertebrates and birds' eggs, which they forage at all levels of the forest, frequently descending to the forest floor. In northern Colombia during the dry season when there are few fruits to be found, white fronted capuchins spend more than half their time on the ground, searching for and capturing small prey. They are extremely good at manipulating objects, and spend a great deal of time examining dry leaves from which they collect invertebrates (for example small beetles and ants' eggs) from rolled up leaves. They hunt frogs and drink the water which accumulates in the spaces between the bracteoles of the common plant Phenakospermum guianense, where the frogs hide. Hunting amphibians seems to be a cultural phenomenon which the members of each group learn. P. guianense is commonly present in large, dense stands in some types of forest. In Manú National Park the animal material in the diet includes frogs, lizards, small mammals and birds' eggs as well as many invertebrates, including orthopterans, lepidopterans and hymenopterans (especially ants and wasp larvae). In the Pacaya–Samiria National Reservation, they have been observed eating tent caterpillars. Terborgh identified 73 species of plants from 33 families consumed by this primate. The Moraceae was the most important family by a wide margin, counting the number of species (17) eaten, equivalent to 23.3% of all plant species consumed. Importance values for plant families consumed by the white fronted capuchin in one study are as follows: Moraceae (17, 23.3%); Leguminosae (5, 6.8%); Araceae (4, 5.5%); Bombacaceae (4, 5.5%); Palmae (4, 5.5%). Defler collected 40 species of plants from 23 families eaten by white fronted capuchins in Vichada according to species consumed per family: Arecaceae (7); Moraceae (6); Chrysobalanaceae (3); Leguminosae (3); Passifloraceae (2); Bromeliaceae (2); Burseraceae (2); Bombacaceae (1); Celastraceae (1); Connaraceae (1); Euphorbiaceae (1); Lecythidaceae (1); Maranthaceae (1); Melastomataceae (1); Anacardiaceae (1); Myrtaceae (1); Annonaceae (1); Musaceae (1); Apocynaceae (1); Orchidaceae (1); Araceae (1); Rubiaceae (1); Bignoriaceae (1). In terms of importance value, palms are highly valued by all species of capuchin. In El Tuparro National Park in Colombia, the palm Attalea regiae was a key species for white fronted capuchins, the nuts being a principal food. In Manú National Park in Peru the palms Astrocaryum and Attalea were the most important palm genera, but perhaps not at the same level as Attalea in El Tuparro. Also, at Manú various species of Ficus were very important to white fronted capuchins; this emphasis on Ficus was not observed in the El Tuparro study, although this study did not include an entire year. Nevertheless, research on other species suggests the importance of palms as "key species" and the lack of importance of Ficus in such habitats as gallery forests in the llanos of Colombia and Venezuela, contrasts with their high importance in more fertile habitats like Manú. White fronted capuchins take advantage of almost any water source, drinking water from tree holes when available, but also drinking from brooks and springs when necessary. During the driest season in Vichada the group studied by Defler went to the ground every day to a water seep from under a huge boulder, which was the only water source available in their home range.

White fronted capuchins are polygamous. The male mounts the female, holding her legs with his hind feet, and copulates with her for a few minutes. Although the time of gestation is unknown, it is probably around 160 days like the tufted capuchin. Usually one infant is born. Observations of a newborn in El Tuparro National Park showed the process by which the newborn discovered the appropriate position for riding on the mother. Newborns ride oriented sideways over the mothers' shoulders, but during the first days the baby holds on to any part of the mother such as the base of the tail, the tail, the legs, and the arms before discovering and learning that the position over the shoulders is best and most secure. After several weeks the baby makes the change from the sideways position over the shoulders to riding on her back. All the members of the troop are interested in the newborn, and they take advantage of any opportunity to examine and look at its genitals if the mother permits it. With time the baby begins to climb up on other members of the troop, including the adult males who are interested in protecting the little one. Playing behavior is principally with a companion, and all members of the troop from the alpha male, the mother and all young members of the group solicit play with the young one.

Adult males are notably tolerant of each other in the group, but they are very aggressive towards males of other groups. Defler observed intergroup aggressive behavior among Humboldt's white fronted capuchins in El Tuparro, which resulted in one group fleeing towards the central parts of their territory. The IUCN does not have enough data to evaluate the Río Cesar white fronted capuchin.