Вирустық трансформация: Механизмдер мен салдары

Viral transformation is the change in growth, phenotype, or indefinite reproduction of cells caused by the introduction of inheritable material. Through this process, a virus causes harmful transformations of an in vivo cell or cell culture. The term can also be understood as DNA transfection using a viral vector. Viral transformation can occur both naturally and medically. Natural transformations can include viral cancers, such as human papillomavirus (HPV) and T cell Leukemia virus type I. Hepatitis B and C are also the result of natural viral transformation of the host cells. Viral transformation can also be induced for use in medical treatments. Cells that have been virally transformed can be differentiated from untransformed cells through a variety of growth, surface, and intracellular observations. The growth of transformed cells can be impacted by a loss of growth limitation caused by cell contact, less oriented growth, and high saturation density. Transformed cells can lose their tight junctions, increase their rate of nutrient transfer, and increase their protease secretion. Transformation can also affect the cytoskeleton and change in the quantity of signal molecules.

There are three types of persistent infections, latent, chronic and slow, in which the virus stays inside the host cell for prolonged periods of time. During latent infections there is minimal to no expression of infected viral genome. The genome remains within the host cell until the virus is ready for replication. Chronic infections have similar cellular effects as acute cytocidal infections but there is a limited number of progeny and viruses involved in transformation. Lastly, slow infections have a longer incubation period in which no physiological, morphological or subcellular changes may be involved. This process is in contrast to the lytic cycle where a virus only uses the host cell's replication machinery to replicate itself before destroying the host cell. The process is similar in animal cells. In most cases, rather than viral DNA being injected into an animal cell, a section of the membrane encases the virus and the cell then absorbs both the virus and the encasing section of the membrane into the cell. This process, called endocytosis, is shown in Figure 3.

Viral transformation disrupts the normal expression of the host cell's genes in favor of expressing a limited number of viral genes. The virus also can disrupt communication between cells and cause cells to divide at an increased rate.

Viral transformation can impose characteristically determinable features upon a cell. Typical phenotypic changes include high saturation density, anchorage independent growth, loss of contact inhibition, loss of orientated growth, immortalization, disruption of the cell's cytoskeleton.

Viral genes are expressed through the use of the host cell's replication machinery; therefore, many viral genes have promoters that support binding of many transcription factors found naturally in the host cells. These transcription factors along with the virus' own proteins can repress or activate genes from both the virus and the host cell's genome. Many viruses can also increase the production of the cell's regulatory proteins. In virology, assays can be used to differentiate between transformed and non transformed cells. Varying the assay used, changes the selective pressure on the cells and therefore can change what properties are selected in the transformed cells. This assay is highly sensitive compared to other assays used for viral analysis, such as the yield reduction assay. An example of the Anchorage independent growth assay is the soft agar assay. The assay is assessing the cells' ability to grow in a gel or viscous fluid. Transformed cells can grow in this environment and are considered anchorage independent. Cells that can only grow when attached to a solid surface are anchorage dependent untransformed cells. This assay is considered one of the most stringent for detection of malignant transformation

In a reduced serum assay, cells are assayed by exploiting the changes in cell serum requirements. Non transformed cells require at least a 5% serum medium in order to grow; however, transformed cells can grow in an environment with significantly less serum. Some such viruses that are commonly recognized include HPV, T cell Leukemia virus type I, and hepatitis B. Viral oncogenesis are most common with DNA and RNA tumor viruses, most frequently the retroviruses. There are two types of oncogenic retroviruses: acute transforming viruses and non acute transforming viruses. Acute transforming viruses induce a rapid tumor growth since they carry viral oncogenes in their DNA/RNA to induce such growth. An example of an acute transforming virus is the Rous Sarcoma Virus (RSV) that carry the v src oncogene. v Src is part of the c src, which is a cellular proto oncogene that stimulates rapid cell growth and expansion. A non acute transforming virus on the other hand induces a slow tumor growth, since it does not carry any viral oncogenes. It induces tumor growth by transcriptionally activating the proto oncogenes particularly the long terminal repeat (LTR) in the proto oncogenes.

Papillomaviruses typically target epithelial cells and cause everything from warts to cervical cancer. When human papillomavirus (HPV) transforms a cell, it interferes with the function of cellular proteins while degrading other cellular proteins.

The herpesviruses, Kaposi's sarcoma associated herpesvirus and Epstein Barr virus, are believed to cause cancer in humans, such as Kaposi's sarcoma, Burkitt's lymphoma, and nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Although genes have been identified in these viruses that cause transformation, the manner in which the virus transforms and replicates the host cell is not understood.

There are many applications in which viral transformation can be artificially induced in a cell culture in order to treat an illness or other condition. A cell culture is infected with a virus causing the transformation; transformed cells can then be used to either produce treatments or be directly introduced into the body.

Type I interferons (IFNs) are used to treat a wide variety of medical conditions including hepatitis C, cancers, viral and inflammatory diseases. IFNs can either be extracted from a natural source, such as cultured human cells or blood leukocytes, or they can be manufactured with recombinant DNA technologies. Most of these IFN treatments have a low response rate. The use of viral transformation of the Epstein Barr virus (EBV) has been recommended to create personalized IFNs. In this process, primary B lymphocytes are transformed with EBV. These cells can then be used to produce IFNs specific for the patient from which the B lymphocytes were extracted. This personalization decreases the likelihood of an antibody response and therefore increases the effectiveness of the treatment. The idea of using viruses to treat cancers was first introduced in 1951 when a 4 year old boy suddenly went into a temporary remission from leukemia while he had chickenpox. This led to research in the 1990s where scientists worked to create a strain of the herpes simplex virus strong enough to infect and transform tumor cells but weak enough to leave healthy cells unharmed. Treating patients with viral transformation has the possibility of treating patients more safely and more effectively than using traditional methods, such as chemotherapy. Viruses used in the treatment of cancer gain strength and increase their effectiveness as the multiply in the body while causing only minor side effects, such as nausea, fatigue, and aches.