АҚШ Азаматтық Теңізшілер Флотилиясы

U. S. civilian mariners

The United States Merchant Marine is an organization composed of United States civilian mariners and U. S. civilian and federally owned merchant vessels. Both the civilian mariners and the merchant vessels are managed by a combination of the government and private sectors, and engage in commerce or transportation of goods and services in and out of the navigable waters of the United States. The Merchant Marine primarily transports domestic and international cargo and passengers during peacetime, and operate and maintain deep sea merchant ships, tugboats, towboats, ferries, dredges, excursion vessels, charter boats and other waterborne craft on the oceans, the Great Lakes, rivers, canals, harbors, and other waterways. In the 19th and 20th centuries, various laws fundamentally changed the course of American merchant shipping. These laws put an end to common practices such as flogging and shanghaiing, and increased shipboard safety and living standards. The United States Merchant Marine is also governed by more than 25 (as of February 17, 2017) international conventions to promote safety and prevent pollution. In 2022, the United States merchant fleet had 178 privately owned, oceangoing, self propelled vessels of 1,000 gross register tons and above. Nearly 800 American owned ships are flagged in other nations. The federal government maintains fleets of merchant ships managed by the United States Maritime Administration. In 2014, they employed approximately 6.5% of all American water transportation workers. Merchant Marine officers may also be commissioned as military officers by the Department of Defense. This is commonly achieved by commissioning unlimited tonnage Merchant Marine officers as Strategic Sealift Officers in the United States Navy Reserve. During World War II, nearly 250,000 civilian merchant mariners served as part of the U. S. military, transporting supplies and personnel. Between 1939 and 1945, 9,521 merchant mariners died, a per capita casualty rate greater than those of each U. S. Armed Forces branch. The GI Bill Improvement Act Of 1977 P. L. 95 202, granted veteran status to Women Airforce Service Pilots and "any person in any other similarly situated group" with jurisdiction granted to the Secretary of Defense, and delegated to the Secretary of the Air Force. Merchant mariners who served in World War II were denied such veterans recognition until 1987 when a federal court ordered it. The Court held that the Secretary of the Air Force wrongfully denied active military service recognition to American merchant mariners who participated in World War II.

Captains, mates (officers), and pilots supervise ship operations on domestic waterways and the high seas. A captain (master) is in overall command of a vessel, and supervises the work of other officers and crew. A captain has the authority to take the conn from a mate or pilot at any time he or she feels the need. On smaller vessels the captain may be a regular watch stander, similar to a mate, directly controlling the vessel's position. Captains and department heads ensure that proper procedures and safety practices are followed, ensure that machinery is in good working order, and oversee the loading and discharging of cargo and passengers. Captains directly communicate with the company or command (MSC), and are overall responsible for cargo, various logs, ship's documents, credentials, efforts at controlling pollution and passengers carried. Mates direct a ship's routine operation for the captain during work shifts, which are called watches. Mates stand watch for specified periods, usually in three duty sections, with four hours on watch and eight hours off. When on a navigational watch, mates direct a bridge team by conning, directing courses through the helmsman and speed through the lee helmsman (or directly in open ocean). When more than one mate is necessary aboard a ship, they typically are designated chief mate or first mate, second mate and third mate. In addition to watch standers, mates directly supervise the ship's crew, and are assigned other tasks. The chief mate is usually in charge of cargo, stability and the deck crew, the second mate in charge of navigation plans and updates and the third mate as the safety officer. They also monitor and direct deck crew operations, such as directing line handlers during moorings, and anchorings, monitor cargo operations and supervise crew members engaged in maintenance and the vessel's upkeep. Harbor pilots guide ships in and out of confined waterways, such as harbors, where a familiarity with local conditions is of prime importance. Harbor pilots are generally independent contractors who accompany vessels while they enter or leave port, and may pilot many ships in a single day. Engine officers, or engineers, operate, maintain, and repair engines, boilers, generators, pumps, and other machinery. Merchant marine vessels usually have four engine officers: a chief engineer and a first, second, and third assistant engineer. On many ships, Assistant Engineers stand periodic watches, overseeing the safe operation of engines and other machinery. However, most modern ships sailing today utilize unmanned machinery space (UMS) automation technology, and Assistant Engineers are dayworkers. At night and during meals and breaks, the engine room is unmanned and machinery alarms are answered by the Duty Engineer. Marine oilers and more experienced qualified members of the engine department, or QMEDs, maintain the vessel in proper running order in the engine spaces below decks, under the direction of the ship's engine officers. These workers lubricate gears, shafts, bearings, and other moving parts of engines and motors; read pressure and temperature gauges, record data and sometimes assist with repairs and adjust machinery. Wipers are the entry level workers in the engine room, holding a position similar to that of ordinary seamen of the deck crew. They clean and paint the engine room and its equipment and assist the others in maintenance and repair work. With more experience, they become oilers and firemen. Able seamen and ordinary seamen operate the vessel and its deck equipment under officer supervision and keep their assigned areas in good order. They watch for other vessels and obstructions in the ship's path, as well as for navigational aids such as buoys and lighthouses. They also steer the ship, measure water depth in shallow water, and maintain and operate deck equipment such as lifeboats, anchors, and cargo handling gear. On tankers, mariners designated as pumpmen hook up hoses, operate pumps, and clean tanks. When arriving at or leaving a dock, they handle the mooring lines. Seamen also perform routine maintenance chores, such as repairing lines, chipping rust, and painting and cleaning decks. On larger vessels, a boatswain—or head seaman—will supervise the work. As of 2011, a typical deep sea merchant ship has a captain, three mates, a chief engineer and three assistant engineers, plus six or more unlicensed seamen, such as able seamen, oilers, QMEDs, and cooks or food handlers known as stewards. Other unlicensed positions on a large ship may include electricians and machinery mechanics.

The North American shipping industry developed as colonies grew and trade with Europe increased. As early as the 16th century, Europeans were shipping horses, cattle and hogs to the Americas. Spanish colonies began to form as early as 1565 in places like St. Augustine, Florida, and later in Santa Fe, New Mexico; San Antonio, Tucson, San Diego, Los Angeles and San Francisco. English colonies like Jamestown began to form as early as 1607. The connection between the American colonies and Europe, with shipping as its only conduit, would continue to grow unhindered for almost two hundred years.

The first wartime role of an identifiable United States Merchant Marine took place on June 12, 1775, in and around Machias, Maine (then part of Massachusetts). A group of citizens, hearing the news from Concord and Lexington, captured the British schooner HMS Margaretta. The citizens, in need of critical supplies, were given an ultimatum: either load the ships with lumber to build British barracks in Boston, or go hungry. They chose to fight. Word of this revolt reached Boston, where the Continental Congress and the various colonies issued Letters of Marque to privateers. The privateers interrupted the British supply chain all along the eastern seaboard of the United States and across the Atlantic Ocean. These actions by the privateers predate both the United States Coast Guard and the United States Navy, which were formed in 1790 and 1797, respectively.

The merchant marine was active in subsequent wars, from the Confederate commerce raiders of the American Civil War, to the assaults on Allied commerce in the First and in the Second World Wars. 3.1 million tons of merchant ships were lost in World War II. Mariners died at a rate of 1 in 26, which was the highest rate of casualties of any service. All told, 733 American cargo ships were lost and 8,651 of the 215,000 who served perished in troubled waters and off enemy shores. During World War II ships with deck guns had United States Navy Armed Guard to man the guns. Some Armed Guard personnel also served as Radiomen and Signalmen. The Navy gun crews were assisted by ship's crew, though the merchant mariner's training in gunnery and combat role was ignored for years. Specific instructions as to merchant crew manning of guns and training they should receive was issued by the War Shipping Administration which operated all U. S. merchant ships either directly or through agents during the war. At wars end 144,857 men would serve in the Navy Armed Guard on 6,200 ships. Merchant shipping also played its role in the wars in Vietnam and Korea. During the Korean War, under the operational control in theater of the Military Sea Transportation Service (MSTS), the number of chartered ships grew from 6 to 255. In September 1950, when the U. S. Marine Corps went ashore at Incheon, 13 Navy cargo ships, 26 chartered American, and 34 Japanese manned merchant ships of the MSTS participated. During the Vietnam War, at least 172 National Defense Reserve Fleet (NDRF) ships were activated, and together with other US flagged merchant vessels crewed by civilian seamen, carried 95% of the supplies used by the American armed forces. Many of these ships sailed into combat zones under fire. The SS Mayaguez incident involved the capture of mariners from the American merchant ship SS Mayaguez. During the first Gulf War, the merchant ships of the Military Sealift Command (MSC) delivered more than 12 million metric tons of vehicles, helicopters, ammunition, fuel and other supplies and equipment. At one point during the war, more than 230 government owned and chartered ships were involved in the sealift. As of January 2017, U. S. Government owned merchant vessels from the National Defense Reserve Fleet have supported emergency shipping requirements in 10 wars and crises. has taken the brunt of the work previously handled by the National Defense Reserve Fleet. The RRF made a major contribution to the success of Operation Desert Shield/Operation Desert Storm from August 1990 through June 1992, when 79 vessels helped meet military sealift requirements by carrying 25% of the unit equipment and 45% of the ammunition needed. Two RRF tankers, two Roll on/Roll off (RO/RO) ships and a troop transport ship were employed in Somalia for Operation Restore Hope in 1993 and 1994. During the Haitian crisis in 1994, 15 ships were activated for Operation Uphold Democracy operations. In 1995 and 1996, four RO/RO ships were used to deliver military cargo as part of US and UK support to NATO peace keeping missions. The RRF was called upon to provide humanitarian assistance to gulf coast areas following Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita landfalls in September 2005. The Federal Emergency Management Agency requested a total of eight vessels to support relief efforts. Messing and berthing was provided for refinery workers, oil spill response teams and longshoremen. One vessel provided electrical power. In Fall 2021, news broke out that several midshipmen reported having been sexually assaulted either at the Academy or during Sea Year. The news resulted in a suspension of Sea Year, multiple investigations and lawsuits, and another promise by the U. S. Government to keep women safer while under their jurisdiction.

As of 31 December 2016, the United States merchant fleet had 175 privately owned, oceangoing, self propelled vessels of 1,000 gross register tons and above that carry cargo from port to port. One hundred fourteen (114) were dry cargo ships, and 61 were tankers. Ninety seven (97) were Jones Act eligible, and 78 were non Jones Act eligible. MARAD deemed 152 of the 175 vessels "militarily useful". In 2005, there were also 77 passenger ships. Of those American flagged ships, 51 were foreign owned. Seven hundred ninety four (794) American owned ships are flagged in other nations. The World War II era was the peak for the U. S. fleet. During the post war year of 1950, for example, U. S. carriers represented about 43 percent of the world's shipping trade. By 1995, the American market share had plunged to 4 percent, according to a 1997 report by the U. S. Congressional Budget Office (CBO). The report states, "the number of U. S. flag vessels has dropped precipitously — from more than 2,000 in the 1940s and 850 in 1970 to about 320 in 1996." A diminishing U. S. fleet contrasted with the burgeoning of international sea trade. For example, worldwide demand for natural gas led to the growth of the global liquefied natural gas (LNG) tanker fleet, which reached 370 vessels as of 2007. In 2007 the United States Maritime Administration (MARAD) set uniform LNG training standards at U. S. maritime training facilities. While short term imports are declining, longer term projections signal an eightfold increase in U. S. imported LNG by 2025, the worldwide LNG fleet does not include a single U. S. flagged vessel. Moreover, only five U. S. deepwater LNG ports were operational in 2007, although permits have been issued for four additional ports, according to MARAD. The U. S. pool of qualified mariners declined with the fleet. In 2004, MARAD described the gap between sealift crewing needs and available unlicensed personnel as "reaching critical proportions, and the long term outlook for sufficient personnel is also of serious concern". Future seagoing jobs for U. S. mariners may be on other than U. S. flagged ships. American trained mariners are being sought after by international companies to operate foreign flagged vessels, according to Julie A. Nelson, deputy maritime administrator of the U. S. Maritime Administration. For example, Shell International and Shipping Company Ltd. began recruiting U. S. seafarers to crew its growing fleet of tankers in 2008. In 2007, Overseas Shipholding Group and the Maritime Administration agreed to allow American maritime academy cadets to train aboard OSG's international flag vessels. In 2015, the average salary of American mariners was $39,000.

The Military Sealift Command (MSC), an arm of the Navy, serves the entire Department of Defense as the ocean carrier of materiel during peacetime and war. MSC transports equipment, fuel, ammunition, and other goods essential to United States armed forces worldwide. Up to 95% of all supplies needed to sustain the U. S. military can be moved by Military Sealift Command. As of February 2017, MSC operated approximately 120 ships with 100 more in reserve. More than 5,500 civil service or contract merchant mariners staff the ships. MSC tankers and freighters have a long history of also serving as supply vessels in support of civilian research in the Arctic and Antarctic, including: McMurdo Station, Antarctica; and Greenland in the Arctic. The National Defense Reserve Fleet (NDRF) NDRF vessels are now staged at the James River (off Ft. Eustis, VA); Beaumont, TX; and Suisun Bay (off Benicia, CA) anchorages, and other designated locations. many of whom worked on Military Sealift Command supply ships. By 2016, MSC reported employing more than 5,500 federal civilian mariners.

Training and licensing are managed by the United States Coast Guard, guided by the United States Code of Federal Regulations Title 46, Chapter I, Subchapter B. Training requirements are also molded by the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification, and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (or STCW), which prescribes minimum standards that must be met.

Unlimited tonnage deck officers (referred to as mates) and engine officers are trained at maritime academies, or by accumulating sea time as a rating on an unlimited tonnage ship along with passing certain training courses. Officers hold senior leadership positions aboard vessels, and must train over several years to meet the minimum standards. At the culmination of training, potential deck officers must pass an extensive examination administered by the U. S. Coast Guard that spans five days. Upon meeting all requirements and passing the final license examination, new deck officers are credentialed as third mates or third assistant engineers. To advance in grade, such as to 2nd Mate or 2nd Engineer, sea time in the prior grade and additional endorsements and testing are required. The term "unlimited" indicates that there are no limits that the officer has in relation to the size and power of the vessel or geographic location of operation.

An informal maritime industry term used to refer to a merchant ship's officer who began his or her career as an unlicensed merchant mariner and did not attend a traditional maritime college/academy to earn the officer's license. This term is similar in use and definition to a U. S. naval services "Mustang" who went from enlisted to officer. A hawsepiper earns their officer's license by attaining the required sea time as a rating, taking required training courses, and completing onboard assessments. When all requirements are met, the mariner can apply to the United States Coast Guard's National Maritime Center to take the license examination.

Unlicensed personnel (synonymous with ratings) are generally trained through several private programs funded by maritime unions, shipping companies, or by one's own expense. An example training institution would be the Paul Hall Center for Maritime Training and Education, or better known as "Piney Point". Generally the merchant mariner works their way up through the rates with sea time on the job. Entry level ratings would be ordinary seaman in the deck department and marine wiper in the engine department. Unlicensed personnel must have sufficient sea time in a qualified rating and complete specified testing and training. These requirements are outlined in the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification, and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW), to advance in rate.

Limited tonnage licensed mariners hold senior positions aboard small ships, boats, and similar vessels, but are restricted to certain tonnages (under 1600 GRT), types of vessels, and geographic locations.

Several laws shaped the development of the U. S. Merchant Marine. Chief among them are the "Seamen's Act of 1915," the "Merchant Marine Act of 1920" (commonly referred to as the "Jones Act"), and the "Merchant Marine Act of 1936".

The Merchant Marine Act of 1920, commonly known as The Jones Act, requires U. S. flagged vessels to be built in the United States, owned by U. S. citizens, and documented ("flagged") under the laws of the United States. Documented means "registered, enrolled, or licensed under the laws of the United States", according to The Shipping Act. The Jones Act also requires that all officers and 75% of the crew be U. S. citizens. It is more costly to document a vessel in the United States than it is in some countries with lower labor standards and wages. Critics of the act claim it unfairly restricts the lucrative domestic shipping business. Another important aspect of the Act is that it allowed injured sailors to obtain compensation from their employers for the negligence of the owner, the captain, or fellow members of the crew.

The Merchant Marine Act of 1936 was enacted "to further the development and maintenance of an adequate and well balanced American merchant marine, to promote the commerce of the United States, to aid in the national defense, to repeal certain former legislation, and for other purposes". Specifically, the Act established the United States Maritime Commission and required a United States Merchant Marine that consisted of U. S. built, U. S. flagged, U. S. crewed, and U. S. owned vessels capable of carrying all domestic and a substantial portion of foreign water borne commerce which could serve as a naval auxiliary in time of war or national emergency. The Act also established federal subsidies for the construction and operation of merchant ships. Two years after the Act was passed, the U. S. Merchant Marine Cadet Corps, the forerunner to the United States Merchant Marine Academy, was established.

Federal law requires the Merchant Marine to adhere to a number of international conventions. The International Maritime Organization was either the source or a conduit for a number of these regulations.

Richard Jaeckel an American actor of film and television. His career spanned over six decades on the big screen. John Paul Jones sailed as both third mate and chief mate, then went on to become the "Father of the American Navy". John F. Kelly, 28th White House Chief of Staff, 5th Homeland Security Secretary, Four star Marine General
Douglass North went from seaman to navigator to winner of the 1993 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics. After completing service in the Merchant Marine, two merchant mariners earned the Medal of Honor: George H. O'Brien Jr., earned the award in the Korean War; and Lawrence Joel earned the honor in the Vietnam War

Rear Admiral Paul Krinsky, Superintendent of the Merchant Marine Academy. Rear Admiral Albert B. Randall Led convoys across the Atlantic during WWI. nicknamed 'Rescue Randall', helmed luxury liners including Leviathan and headed the Merchant Marines in 1943. Chevalier of the Legion D'Honnere. Sadie O. Horton, who spent World War II working aboard a coastwise U. S. Merchant Marine barge, posthumously received official veteran's status for her wartime service in 2017, becoming the first recorded female Merchant Marine veteran of World War II. Some became notorious criminals: William Colepaugh was convicted as a Nazi spy in World War II; Perry Smith's murderous rampage in 1959 was made famous in Truman Capote's non fiction novel In Cold Blood; and George Hennard was a mass murderer who claimed 23 victims on a shooting rampage at Luby's Cafeteria in Killeen, Texas, in 1991. Mariners are well represented in the visual arts: Johnny Craig was already a working comic book artist before he joined up, but Ernie Schroeder would not start drawing comics until after returning home from World War II; Haskell Wexler won two Academy Awards, the latter for a biography of his shipmate Woody Guthrie. Merchant sailors have also made a splash in the world of sports: Drew Bundini Brown was Muhammad Ali's assistant trainer and cornerman, and Joe Gold made his fortune as the bodybuilding and fitness guru of Gold's Gym; in football, Dan Devine and Heisman Trophy winner Frank Sinkwich excelled; Jim Bagby Jr., and Charlie Keller played in Major League Baseball; in track and field, Cornelius Johnson and Jim Thorpe both won Olympic medals, though Thorpe did not get his until 30 years after his death. Writers Richard Henry Dana Jr., Ralph Ellison, Herman Melville, Louis L'Amour, Thomas Pynchon, and Jack Vance were merchant mariners, as were prominent members of the Beat movement: Allen Ginsberg, Herbert Huncke, Bob Kaufman, Jack Kerouac, Hubert Selby Jr. and Dave Van Ronk. Peter Baynham, the coauthor of the film Borat, and Donn Pearce, who wrote the movie Cool Hand Luke, were formerly merchant mariners. Filmmaker Oliver Stone won multiple Academy Awards, and David Mamet, American playwright, essayist, screenwriter, and film director, worked as a merchant mariner using the experience to influence his work Lakeboat. World War II era merchant mariners played well known television characters, including: Raymond Bailey (who played Milburn Drysdale on The Beverly Hillbillies); Peter Falk (who played the title character on Columbo); James Garner (who played Jim Rockford on The Rockford Files); Jack Lord (who played Steve McGarrett on the original Hawaii Five 0); Carroll O'Connor (who played Archie Bunker on All in the Family); Denver Pyle (who played Uncle Jesse Duke on The Dukes of Hazzard); and Clint Walker (who played Cheyenne Bodie on Cheyenne). Songwriter and lyricist Jack Lawrence was a merchant mariner during World War II and wrote the official United States Merchant Marine song, "Heave Ho! My Lads, Heave Ho!" while a young lieutenant stationed at Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn, in 1943. Paul Teutul Sr., the founder of Orange County Choppers and Orange County Ironworks, was a merchant mariner during the Vietnam War. Captain Richard Phillips, Maersk Alabama was captain during a Somali piracy attack. Merrill Kenneth Albert was a merchant mariner who served as a first mate on Liberty Ships during World War II. He was the youngest first mate to ever receive his captain's papers, and later became one of Los Angeles' most celebrated trial lawyers. Colonel David Hackworth, a highly decorated veteran of the Korean and Vietnam Wars, worked briefly as a merchant mariner before joining the U. S. Army.

In Tennessee Williams' play The Glass Menagerie, the character Tom Wingfield leaves his family to join the Merchant Marine.