16 ғасыр: Батыс өркениетінің қалыптасуы және әлемдік өзгерістер

One hundred years, from 1501 to 1600

The 16th century began with the Julian year 1501 (represented by the Roman numerals MDI) and ended with either the Julian or the Gregorian year 1600 (MDC), depending on the reckoning used (the Gregorian calendar introduced a lapse of 10 days in October 1582). The 16th century is regarded by historians as the century which saw the rise of Western civilization. The Renaissance in Italy and Europe saw the emergence of important artists, authors and scientists, and led to the foundation of important subjects which include accounting and political science. Copernicus proposed the heliocentric universe, which was met with strong resistance, and Tycho Brahe refuted the theory of celestial spheres through observational measurement of the 1572 appearance of a Milky Way supernova. These events directly challenged the long held notion of an immutable universe supported by Ptolemy and Aristotle, and led to major revolutions in astronomy and science. Galileo Galilei became a champion of the new sciences, invented the first thermometer and made substantial contributions in the fields of physics and astronomy, becoming a major figure in the Scientific Revolution in Europe. Spain and Portugal colonized large parts of Central and South America, followed by France and England in Northern America and the Lesser Antilles. The Portuguese became the masters of trade between Brazil, the coasts of Africa, and their possessions in the Indies, whereas the Spanish came to dominate the Greater Antilles, Mexico, Peru, and opened trade across the Pacific Ocean, linking the Americas with the Indies. English and French privateers began to practice persistent theft of Spanish and Portuguese treasures. This era of colonialism established mercantilism as the leading school of economic thought, where the economic system was viewed as a zero sum game in which any gain by one party required a loss by another. The mercantilist doctrine encouraged the many intra European wars of the period and arguably fueled European expansion and imperialism throughout the world until the 19th century or early 20th century. The Reformation in central and northern Europe gave a major blow to the authority of the papacy and the Catholic Church. In England, the British Italian Alberico Gentili wrote the first book on public international law and divided secularism from canon law and Catholic theology. European politics became dominated by religious conflicts, with the groundwork for the epochal Thirty Years' War being laid towards the end of the century. In the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire continued to expand, with the sultan taking the title of caliph, while dealing with a resurgent Persia. Iran and Iraq were caught by a major popularity of the Shia sect of Islam under the rule of the Safavid dynasty of warrior mystics, providing grounds for a Persia independent of the majority Sunni Muslim world. In the Indian subcontinent, following the defeat of the Delhi Sultanate and Vijayanagara Empire, new powers emerged, the Sur Empire founded by Sher Shah Suri, Deccan sultanates, Rajput states, and the Mughal Empire by Emperor Babur, a direct descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan. His successors Humayun and Akbar, enlarged the empire to include most of South Asia. Japan suffered a severe civil war at this time, known as the Sengoku period, and emerged from it as a unified nation under Toyotomi Hideyoshi. China was ruled by the Ming dynasty, which was becoming increasingly isolationist, coming into conflict with Japan over the control of Korea as well as Japanese pirates. In Africa, Christianity had begun to spread in Central Africa and Southern Africa. Until the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century, most of Africa was left uncolonized.

1550: The architect Mimar Sinan builds the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul. 1550: Mongols led by Altan Khan invade China and besiege Beijing. 1550–1551: Valladolid debate concerning the human rights of the Indigenous people of the Americas. 1551: Fifth outbreak of sweating sickness in England. John Caius of Shrewsbury writes the first full contemporary account of the symptoms of the disease. 1551: North African pirates enslave the entire population of the Maltese island Gozo, between 5,000 and 6,000, sending them to Libya. 1552: Russia conquers the Khanate of Kazan in central Asia. 1552: Jesuit China Mission, Francis Xavier dies. 1553: Mary Tudor becomes the first queen regnant of England and restores the Church of England under Papal authority. 1553: The Portuguese found a settlement at Macau. 1554: Missionaries José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega establishes São Paulo, southeast Brazil. 1554: Princess Elizabeth is imprisoned in the Tower of London upon the orders of Mary I for suspicion of being involved in the Wyatt rebellion. 1555: The Muscovy Company is the first major English joint stock trading company. 1556: Publication in Venice of Delle Navigiationi et Viaggi (terzo volume) by Giovanni Battista Ramusio, secretary of Council of Ten, with plan La Terra de Hochelaga, an illustration of the Hochelaga. 1556: The Shaanxi earthquake in China is history's deadliest known earthquake during the Ming dynasty. 1556: Georgius Agricola, the "Father of Mineralogy", publishes his De re metallica. 1556: Akbar defeats Hemu at the Second battle of Panipat. 1556: Russia conquers the Astrakhan Khanate. 1556–1605: During his reign, Akbar expands the Mughal Empire in a series of conquests (in the Indian subcontinent). 1556: Mir Chakar Khan Rind captures Delhi with Humayun. 1556: Pomponio Algerio, radical theologian, is executed by boiling in oil as part of the Roman Inquisition. 1557: Habsburg Spain declares bankruptcy. Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557, 1560, 1575 and 1596. 1557: The Portuguese settle in Macau (on the western side of the Pearl River Delta across from present day Hong Kong). 1557: The Ottomans capture Massawa, all but isolating Ethiopia from the rest of the world. 1558: Elizabeth Tudor becomes Queen Elizabeth I at age 25. 1558–1603: The Elizabethan era is considered the height of the English Renaissance. 1558–1583: Livonian War between Poland, Grand Principality of Lithuania, Sweden, Denmark and Russia. 1558: After 200 years, the Kingdom of England loses Calais to France. 1559: With the Peace of Cateau Cambrésis, the Italian Wars conclude. 1559: Sultan Hairun of Ternate (in present day Indonesia) protests the Portuguese's Christianisation activities in his lands. Hostilities between Ternate and the Portuguese.

1590: Siege of Odawara: the Go Hojo clan surrender to Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Japan is unified. 1591: Gazi Giray leads a huge Tatar expedition against Moscow. 1591: In Mali, Moroccan forces of the Sultan Ahmad al Mansur led by Judar Pasha defeat the Songhai Empire at the Battle of Tondibi. 1592–1593: John Stow reports 10,675 plague deaths in London, a city of approximately 200,000 people. 1592–1598: Korea, with the help of Ming dynasty China, repels two Japanese invasions. 1593–1606: The Long War between the Habsburg monarchy and the Ottoman Turks. 1594: St. Paul's College, Macau, founded by Alessandro Valignano. 1595: First Dutch expedition to Indonesia sets sail for the East Indies with two hundred and forty nine men and sixty four cannons led by Cornelis de Houtman. 1596: Birth of René Descartes. 1596: June, de Houtman's expedition reaches Banten the main pepper port of West Java where they clash with both the Portuguese and Indonesians. It then sails east along the north coast of Java losing twelve crew to a Javanese attack at Sidayu and killing a local ruler in Madura. Later in the year, the Dutch join forces with the local Hituese in an anti Portuguese alliance, in return for which the Dutch would have the sole right to purchase spices from Hitu. Mississippian culture disappears. Medallion rug, variant Star Ushak style, Anatolia (modern Turkey), is made. It is now kept at the Saint Louis Art Museum.