Эффект самообслуживания: когнитивные искажения и самооценка.

Distortion to enhance self esteem, or to see oneself overly favorably
A self serving bias is any cognitive or perceptual process that is distorted by the need to maintain and enhance self esteem, or the tendency to perceive oneself in an overly favorable manner. It is the belief that individuals tend to ascribe success to their own abilities and efforts, but ascribe failure to external factors. For example, a student who attributes earning a good grade on an exam to their own intelligence and preparation but attributes earning a poor grade to the teacher's poor teaching ability or unfair test questions might be exhibiting a self serving bias. Studies have shown that similar attributions are made in various situations, such as the workplace, interpersonal relationships, sports, and consumer decisions. Both motivational processes (i. e. self enhancement, self presentation) and cognitive processes (i. e. locus of control, self esteem) influence the self serving bias. There are both cross cultural (i. e. individualistic and collectivistic culture differences) and special clinical population (i. e. depression) considerations within the bias. Much of the research on the self serving bias has used participant self reports of attribution based on experimental manipulation of task outcomes or in naturalistic situations. In 1971, a fear emerged that the hypothesis would prove to be incorrect, much like the perceptual defense hypothesis by Dixon. However, the theory now holds strong. When this theory was still being developed it was during the research of attribution bias. Fritz Heider found that in ambiguous situations people made attributions based on their own needs, in order to maintain a higher self esteem and viewpoint. This specific tendency became what we now know as the self serving bias. Miller and Ross conducted a study in 1975 that was one of the earliest to assess not only self serving bias but also the attributions for successes and failures within this theory. They argued that the self serving bias people create is rational and not dependent on one's need for self esteem. This means that if the outcome of an event is consistent with the person's expectation, then they will attribute dispositional (internal) factors. On the other hand, if the outcome of the event does not match the person's expectations, they will make situational attributions by blaming their surroundings instead of themselves.

Investigations of the self serving bias in the laboratory differ depending on the experimental goals, but have basic fundamental aspects. Participants perform some task, often of intelligence, social sensitivity, teaching ability, or therapy skills.

Retrospective performance outcomes can be used in investigation of the self serving bias. An example of this is reported company performance followed up by self report of outcome attributions. Individuals with an external locus of control are more likely to exhibit a self serving bias following failure than those with an internal locus of control. The difference in attribution style between individuals with internal and external loci of control, however, is not as marked in successful outcomes, as individuals with both types attribution style have less need to defend their self images in success. Airplane pilots with an internal locus of control were likely to exhibit a self serving bias in regard to their skill and levels of safety. This is evidence that men may exhibit the self serving bias more than women, although the study did not look at positive interaction attributions.

Older adults have been shown to make more internal causal attributions for negative outcomes. Differential attribution style at different ages indicates that the self serving bias may be less likely in older adults. These older adults who attributed negative outcomes to more internal factors also rated themselves to be in poorer health, so negative emotional factors may confound the found age effects.

There is evidence of cross cultural differences in the tendency to exhibit the self serving bias, particularly when considering individualistic (Western) versus collectivistic (non Western) societies. Family and group goals are important in collectivistic cultures. In contrast, the individual goals and identity focused on in individualistic societies increases the need for people within those cultures to guard and boost their personal self esteem. While differences have been shown, conflicting literature has cited similarity in causal attributions across both individual and collective cultures, specifically between Belgium, West Germany, South Korea, and England. Naturalistic observation and information comparing United States and Japanese companies outcome attributions shows that the meaning and psychological function of internal versus external attributions are similar across cultures but that the difference is in the strategy of attribution. Another study conducted by Hugten and Witteloostuijn displayed the results that student participants between the ages of 13 and 15 who mainly process feedback in a non native English tend to show more self serving bias than those who process feedback in their native Dutch language.

Investigations of self serving bias distinguish between the role of participants as the actor of a task or as the observer of someone else performing a task, relating closely to actor–observer asymmetry. Actors of a task exhibit the self serving bias in their attributions to their own success or failure feedback, whereas observers do not make the same attributions about another person's task outcome.

Emotions can influence feelings of self esteem, which in turn alters the need to protect one's self identity. Individuals with higher self esteem are thought to have more to protect in their self image, and therefore exhibit the self serving bias more often than those individuals with lower self esteem. Coleman concluded that the two emotions of guilt and revulsion lead to a drop in self esteem, and thus a reduction in the use of the self serving bias.

The relationship between individuals' awareness levels and perceived probability of improvement also influences the activation of the self serving bias. Individuals with high self awareness attribute failure internally when they perceive a high probability of improvement. However, they will engage in self serving bias, attributing failure externally when they perceive a low probability of improvement. Individuals low in self awareness will attribute failure externally regardless of their perceived probability of improvement.

Whether the self serving bias is exhibited may depend on interpersonal closeness, relationships in a social context. When working in pairs to complete interdependent outcome tasks, relationally close pairs did not show a self serving bias while relationally distant pairs did. The individual becomes more modest, when in a close relationship, and is less likely to use that relationship for his or her own benefit. Understanding why partners refrain from the self serving bias is still in question but can partially be explained by favorable impression those in close relationships have for one another. A similar result was shown when looking at pairs of friends and strangers. Pairs performed an interdependent outcomes creativity test and were then given a bogus pipeline for a success or failure outcome. Strangers exhibited the self serving bias in responsibility attributions, but friends tended to make joint attributions for both success and failure. Researchers have taken this as evidence for "boundaries on self enhancement". Using two Implicit Association tests, one measuring Self vs Partner and the other measuring Self vs Ex, results showed that most of the time, men and women consider their exes or partners as less suitable parents which demonstrates the self serving bias as they "ascribe more easily successes to internal factors" and failures towards their partners. Experimental investigation of the explanations for unemployment through asking participants to imagine particular job opportunities and likelihood of getting those jobs, however, did not show such a self serving bias. Interpersonal dynamics of the self serving bias in the previous section have implications for attributions for outcomes in the workplace. In an investigation of group dynamics, virtual group members had to complete a decision making task via computer mediated communication. Results showed that the self serving bias was present in negative outcomes, and that greater interpersonal distance from group members increased blame for negative outcomes.

Studies revealed that narcissism was related to enhanced self ratings of leadership, even when controlling for the Big Five traits. Another study showed that narcissism was related to enhanced leadership self perceptions; indeed, whereas narcissism was significantly positively correlated with self ratings of leadership, it was significantly negatively related to other ratings of leadership. This study also revealed that narcissism was related to more favorable self ratings of workplace deviance and contextual performance compared to other (supervisor) ratings. Because narcissism broadly reflects strong self admiration and behavioral tendencies which may not be viewed positively by others it is possible that narcissism influences self and other perceptions differently, and insight into this possibility may be important given that differences in perceptions are the foundation for certain types of performance management and development practices. These attributions hold the potential for conflict between teacher and student since neither will take personal responsibility, as the student may blame the teacher while the teacher holds the student accountable. However, both teachers and students also reported being aware of the others' bias, which indicated there may be a feasible conflict resolution mechanism.

Computers have become an integral part of everyday life, and research has shown that individuals may subconsciously treat interactions with computers as they would treat a social situation. This finding combined with what is known about the self serving bias in interpersonal relations indicates that consumers that use a computer to buy products will take personal credit for successful purchases but blame the computer for negative purchase experiences. It was also found, however, that consumers are more willing to attribute successful purchases to the computer and not ascribe blame to the computer for failed purchases if they have "intimate self disclosure" with the computer, which Moon describes as revelation of personal information that makes the discloser feel vulnerable.

Individuals have been shown to exhibit the self serving bias in regard to sports outcomes. In one study, collegiate wrestlers at the Division I level made self reported attributions of the outcomes in their preseason matches. Winners were more likely than losers to attribute the match outcome to internal causes. The results showed that "lone performers made more self serving attributions than team performers" because their performance outcomes have a greater effect on their individual esteem unlike for group outcomes where it "must often be distributed among all participants." The coding of the newspaper accounts showed that there was a "tendency to make internal attributions for success and external attributions for failure" which supports the self serving bias as about 75% of the attributions from winning teams were internal while about 55% of attributions from losing teams were internal. It has been suggested that the negative mood in depressed individuals as well as their self focused attention explains why clinically depressed populations are less likely to exhibit the self serving bias than normal populations. to individual's preferences, which effects to his/her beliefs in an optimistic way. Kaplan et al. also defines, that SSB should be termed as ‘self defeating’ phenomenon as it appears for persons, who does not give up. Furthermore, Kaplan et al. state, that specific type of self serving bias is wishful thinking. This is typically present, when unpleasant surprise pops up in the negotiation, particularly when the opponent has made preparations carefully. Another example is well known phenomenon from law court and is commonly used also in law based TV series. We can say, that according to Kaplan et al. 's finding, that self serving bias is playing a major role in negotiation context. There is an emotional effect to the negotiations and there seems to be a reflection between self serving bias and emotions.

The self serving bias has been investigated by the fMRI method in normal populations. Attributions using the bias show activation in the dorsal striatum, which plays a role in motivated behavior, as well as in the dorsal anterior cingulate. In clinically depressed patients, there appear to be weaker connections between the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex and limbic areas of the brain, so this connection may play a role in self serving attributions.

In a study employing the EEG method of examining brain activation, participants were given bogus outcome feedback that indicated either success or failure and told to make attributions. Different from non self serving responses, self serving responses did not show increased dorsomedial frontal cortex activity preceding attribution decisions. Such lack of brain activity implies that self control, which is controlled by the dorsomedial frontal cortex, is not as prominent in self serving attributions as non self serving ones.