Добродетель: Сущность, история и проявления.

Positive trait or quality deemed to be morally good

A virtue (virtus) is a trait of excellence, including traits that may be moral, social, or intellectual. The cultivation and refinement of virtue is held to be the "good of humanity" and thus is valued as an end purpose of life or a foundational principle of being. In human practical ethics, a virtue is a disposition to choose actions that succeed in showing high moral standards: doing what is right and avoiding what is wrong in a given field of endeavour, even when doing so may be unnecessary from a utilitarian perspective. When someone takes pleasure in doing what is right, even when it is difficult or initially unpleasant, they can establish virtue as a habit. Such a person is said to be virtuous through having cultivated such a disposition. The opposite of virtue is vice, and the vicious person takes pleasure in habitual wrong doing to their detriment. Other examples of this notion include the concept of merit in Asian traditions as well as [[De (Chinese) (Chinese 德). Buddhism's four brahmavihara can be regarded as virtues in the European sense.

The ancient Romans used the Latin word virtus (derived from vir, their word for man) to refer to all of the "excellent qualities of men, including physical strength, valorous conduct, and moral rectitude". The French words vertu and virtu came from this Latin root. The word virtue "was borrowed into English in the 13th century".

Maat (or Ma'at) was the ancient Egyptian goddess of truth, balance, order, law, morality, and justice. The word maat was also used to refer to these concepts. Maat was also portrayed as regulating the stars, seasons, and the actions of both mortals and the deities. The deities set the order of the universe from chaos at the moment of creation. Her (ideological) counterpart was Isfet, who symbolized chaos, lies, and injustice.

In his Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle defined a virtue as a point between a deficiency and an excess of a trait. The point of greatest virtue lies not in the exact middle, but at a golden mean sometimes closer to one extreme than the other. However, the virtuous action is not simply the "mean" (mathematically speaking) between two opposite extremes. As Aristotle says in the Nicomachean Ethics: "at the right times, and on the right occasions, and towards the right persons, and with the right object, and in the right fashion, is the mean course and the best course, and these are characteristics of virtue." both public and private, were:
LatinEnglishDescriptionAbundantiaAbundance or ProsperityThe ideal of there being enough food and prosperity for all segments of society, personified by Abundantia. A public virtue. Auctoritas Spiritual AuthorityThe sense of one's social standing, built up through experience, Pietas, and Industria. This was considered to be essential for a magistrate's ability to enforce law and order. ComitasHumourEase of manner, courtesy, openness, and friendliness. [[CouragePerseverance or CourageMilitary stamina, as well as general mental and physical endurance in the face of hardship. ClementiaMercyMildness and gentleness, and the ability to set aside previous transgressions, personified by Clementia. DignitasDignityA sense of self worth, personal self respect, and self esteem. DisciplinaDisciplineConsidered essential to military excellence; also connotes adherence to the legal system, and upholding the duties of citizenship, personified by Disciplina. FidesGood FaithMutual trust and reciprocal dealings in both government and commerce (public affairs), a breach meant legal and religious consequences, personified by Fides. FirmitasTenacityStrength of mind, and the ability to stick to one's purpose at hand without wavering. [[FrugalityFrugalityEconomy and simplicity in lifestyle. GravitasGravityA sense of the importance of the matter at hand; responsibility, and being earnest. Honestas RespectibilityThe image and honor that one presents as a respectable member of society. HumanitasHumanityRefinement, civilization, learning, and generally being cultured. [[Diligence Industriousness or DiligenceHard work. InnocenciaSelflessnessGiving without anticipating recognition or personal gain. Central to this concept was an unwavering commitment to incorruptibility, avoiding the misuse of public office for personal benefit, as that was considered a grave affront to Roman values, detrimental to both individual and communal well being. [[JoyJoy or GladnessThe celebration of thanksgiving, often of the resolution of crisis, a public virtue. Nobilitas NobilityMan of fine appearance, deserving of honor, highly esteemed social rank, and, or, nobility of birth, a public virtue. JustitiaJusticeSense of moral worth to an action; personified by the goddess Iustitia, the Roman counterpart to the Greek Themis. PietasDutifulnessMore than religious piety; a respect for the natural order: socially, politically, and religiously. Includes ideas of patriotism, fulfillment of pious obligation to the gods, and honoring other human beings, especially in terms of the patron and client relationship considered essential to an orderly society. Prudentia PrudenceForesight, wisdom, and personal discretion. [[Salus WholesomenessGeneral health and cleanliness, personified in the deity Salus. Severitas SternnessSelf control, considered to be tied directly to the virtue of gravitas. Veritas TruthfulnessHonesty in dealing with others, personified by the goddess Veritas. Veritas, being the mother of Virtus, was considered the root of all virtue; a person living an honest life was bound to be virtuous. [[Virtus (virtue) ManlinessValor, excellence, courage, character, and worth. Vir is Latin for "man".

While religious scriptures generally consider dharma or aṟam (the Tamil term for virtue) as a divine virtue, Valluvar describes it as a way of life rather than any spiritual observance, a way of harmonious living that leads to universal happiness. For this reason, Valluvar keeps aṟam as the cornerstone throughout the writing of the Kural literature. Valluvar considered justice as a facet or product of aṟam.

The Baháʼí teachings speak of a "Greater Covenant", being universal and endless, and a "Lesser Covenant" specific to each religion. Baháʼís view Baháʼu'lláh's revelation as a binding lesser covenant for his followers. In the Baháʼí writings being firm in the covenant is considered a virtue.

Loving God and obeying his laws, in particular the Ten Commandments, are central to Jewish conceptions of virtue. Wisdom is personified in the first eight chapters of the Book of Proverbs and is not only the source of virtue but is depicted as the first and best creation of God
A classic articulation of the Golden Rule came from the first century Rabbi Hillel the Elder. Renowned in the Jewish tradition as a sage and a scholar, he is associated with the development of the Mishnah and the Talmud and, as such, is one of the most important figures in Jewish history. Asked for a summary of the Jewish religion in the most concise terms, Hillel replied (reputedly while standing on one leg): "That which is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah. The rest is commentary; go and learn."

Buddhist practice as outlined in the Noble Eightfold Path can be regarded as a progressive list of virtues. Right View – realizing the Four Noble Truths (samyag vyāyāma, sammā vāyāma). Right Mindfulness – mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness (samyak smṛti, sammā sati). Right Concentration – wholesome one pointedness of mind (samyak samādhi, sammā samādhi). Buddhism's four brahmavihara ("Divine States") can be more properly regarded as virtues in the European sense. They are:
[[Maitrī/Maitrī: loving kindness towards all; the hope that a person will be well; loving kindness is the wish that all sentient beings, without any exception, be happy. Karuṇā: compassion; the hope that a person's sufferings will diminish; compassion is the wish for all sentient beings to be free from suffering. There are also the Pāramitās ("perfections"), which are the culmination of having acquired certain virtues. In Theravada Buddhism's canonical Buddhavaṃsa there are Ten Perfections (dasa pāramiyo). In Mahayana Buddhism, the Lotus Sutra (Saddharmapundarika), there are Six Perfections; while in the Ten Stages (Dasabhumika) Sutra, four more Paramitas are listed.

"Virtue", translated from Chinese [[De (Chinese) ([[Wikt:德), is also an important concept in Chinese philosophy, particularly Daoism. De originally meant normative "virtue" in the sense of "personal character; inner strength; integrity", but semantically changed to moral "virtue; kindness; morality". Note the semantic parallel for English virtue, with an archaic meaning of "inner potency; divine power" (as in "by virtue of") and a modern one of "moral excellence; goodness". In early periods of Confucianism, moral manifestations of "virtue" include ren ("humanity"), xiao ("filial piety"), and li ("proper behavior, performance of rituals"). The notion of [[Confucianism#Humaneness – according to Simon Leys – means "humanity" and "goodness". Ren originally had the archaic meaning in the Confucian Book of Poems of "virility", but progressively took on shades of ethical meaning. Some scholars consider the virtues identified in early Confucianism as non theistic philosophy. The Daoist concept of De, compared to Confucianism, is more subtle, pertaining to the "virtue" or ability that an individual realizes by following the [[Tao ("the Way"). One important normative value in much of Chinese thinking is that one's social status should result from the amount of virtue that one demonstrates, rather than from one's birth. In the Analects, Confucius explains de as follows: "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it." In later periods, particularly from the Tang dynasty period, Confucianism absorbed and melded its own concepts of virtues with those from Daoism and Buddhism. and an evolving concept in ancient scriptures of Hinduism. The essence, need and value of virtue is explained in Hindu philosophy as something that cannot be imposed, but something that is realized and voluntarily lived up to by each individual. For example, Apastamba explained it thus: "virtue and vice do not go about saying—here we are! ; neither the Gods, Gandharvas, nor ancestors can convince us—this is right, this is wrong; virtue is an elusive concept, it demands careful and sustained reflection by every man and woman before it can become part of one's life. Virtues lead to [[Punya (Hinduism) (पुण्य, holy living) in Hindu literature; while vices lead to pap (पाप, sin). Sometimes, the word punya is used interchangeably with virtue. The virtues that constitute a dharmic life – that is a moral, ethical, virtuous life – evolved in vedas and upanishads. Over time, new virtues were conceptualized and added by ancient Hindu scholars: some replaced, others merged. For example, Manusamhita initially listed ten virtues necessary for a human being to live a dharmic life: [[Dhrti (courage), kshama (patience and forgiveness), [[Temperance (virtue)#Hinduism (temperance), [[Achourya (Non covetousness/Non stealing), [[Shaucha (inner purity), indriyani graha (control of senses), [[Dhi (Hindu thought) (reflective prudence), [[Vidya (philosophy) (wisdom), satyam (truthfulness), and akrodha (freedom from anger). In later verses, this list was reduced to five virtues by the same scholar, by merging and creating a broader concept. The shorter list of virtues became: Ahimsa (Non violence), dama (self restraint), asteya (Non covetousness/Non stealing), saucha (inner purity), and satyam (truthfulness). The Bhagavad Gita – considered one of the epitomes of historic Hindu discussion of virtues and an allegorical debate on what is right and what is wrong – argues some virtues are not necessarily always absolute, but sometimes relational. For example, it explains that a virtue such as Ahimsa must be re examined when one is faced with war or violence from the aggressiveness, immaturity, or ignorance of others.

In Jainism, attainment of kaivalya is possible only if the seeker possesses certain virtues. All Jains are supposed to take up the five vows of ahimsa (non violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non stealing), aparigraha (non attachment), and brahmacharya (celibacy) before becoming a monk. These vows are laid down by the [[Tirthankaras. Other virtues which are supposed to be followed by both monks as well as laypersons include forgiveness, humility, self restraint, and straightforwardness. These vows assist the seeker to escape from the karmic bondages thereby escaping the cycle of birth and death to attain liberation.

Sikh ethics emphasize the congruence between spiritual development and everyday moral conduct. Its founder Guru Nanak summarized this perspective:Truth is the highest virtue, but higher still is truthful living. The Five Virtues of Sikhism are [[Sat (Sikhism) (truth), [[Daya (Sikhism) (compassion), Santokh (contentment), Nimrata (humility), and Pyaar (love).

For the Rationalist philosopher René Descartes, virtue consists in the correct reasoning that should guide our actions. Men should seek the sovereign good that Descartes, following Zeno, identifies with virtue, as this produces a blessedness or pleasure. For Epicurus the sovereign good was pleasure, and Descartes says that in fact this is not in contradiction with Zeno's teaching, because virtue produces a spiritual pleasure, that is better than bodily pleasure. Regarding Aristotle's opinion that happiness depends on the goods of fortune, Descartes does not deny that these goods contribute to happiness, but remarks that they are in great proportion outside one's own control, whereas one's mind is under one's complete control.

Immanuel Kant, in his Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime, says true virtue is different from what commonly is believed about it. In Kant's view, to be goodhearted, benevolent and sympathetic is not true virtue. What makes a person truly virtuous is to behave in accordance with moral principles. Kant presents an example: suppose that you come across a needy person in the street; if your sympathy leads you to help that person, your response does not illustrate your virtue. Kant applies the approach of four temperaments to distinguish truly virtuous people. According to Kant, among all people with diverse temperaments, a person with a melancholic frame of mind is the most virtuous, whose thoughts, words, and deeds are principled.

Friedrich Nietzsche's view of virtue is based on the idea of an order of rank among people. For Nietzsche, the virtues of the strong are seen as vices by the weak and slavish, thus Nietzsche's virtue ethics is based on his distinction between master morality and slave morality. Nietzsche promotes the virtues of those he calls "higher men", people like Goethe and Beethoven. The virtues he praises in them are their creative powers ("the men of great creativity, the really great men according to my understanding"). According to Nietzsche these higher types are solitary, pursue a "unifying project", revere themselves and are healthy and life affirming. Because mixing with the herd makes one base, the higher type "strives instinctively for a citadel and a secrecy where he is saved from the crowd, the many, the great majority ". The "Higher type" also "instinctively seeks heavy responsibilities" in the form of an "organizing idea" for their life, which drives them to artistic and creative work and gives them psychological health and strength. He had a checklist in a notebook to measure each day how he lived up to his virtues. They became known through Benjamin Franklin's autobiography. Temperance: Eat not to Dullness. Drink not to Elevation. Silence: Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself. Avoid trifling Conversation. Order: Let all your Things have their Places. Let each Part of your Business have its Time. Resolution: Resolve to perform what you ought. Perform without fail what you resolve. Frugality: Make no Expense but to do good to others or yourself; i. e. Waste nothing. Industry: Lose no Time. Be always employed in something useful. Cut off all unnecessary Actions. Sincerity: Use no hurtful Deceit. Think innocently and justly; and, if you speak, speak accordingly. Justice: Wrong none, by doing Injuries or omitting the Benefits that are your Duty. Moderation: Avoid Extremes. Forbear resenting Injuries so much as you think they deserve. Cleanliness: Tolerate no Uncleanness in Body, Clothes or Habitation. Tranquility: Be not disturbed at Trifles, or at Accidents common or unavoidable. Chastity: Rarely use Venery but for Health or Offspring; Never to Dullness, Weakness, or the Injury of your own or another's Peace or Reputation. Humility: Imitate Jesus and Socrates.

Marc Jackson in his book Emotion and Psyche identifies the virtues as what he calls the good emotions: "The first group consisting of love, kindness, joy, faith, awe and pity is good". These virtues differ from older accounts of the virtues because they are not character traits expressed by action, but emotions that are to be felt and developed by feeling not acting. Immanuel Kant, in his Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime, predicts and replies to Marc Johnson's view of emotions as virtues. To be goodhearted, benevolent, and sympathetic is not true virtue, for one acts merely episodically, motivated by appeasing those naturally limited feelings, such as in the presence, for example, of a needy person in the street: in such a case, we do not act for a universal motive but simply as a response to end a particular, individual, personal distress arisen in us by our own sentiments.

Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman, two leading researchers in positive psychology, recognizing the deficiency inherent in psychology's tendency to focus on dysfunction rather than on what makes a healthy and stable personality, set out to develop a list of "Character Strengths and Virtues". After three years of study, 24 traits (classified into six broad areas of virtue) were identified, having "a surprising amount of similarity across cultures and strongly indicat[ing] a historical and cross cultural convergence." These six categories of virtue are courage, justice, humanity, temperance, transcendence, and wisdom. Some psychologists suggest that these virtues are adequately grouped into fewer categories; for example, the same 24 traits have been grouped into simply: Cognitive Strengths, Temperance Strengths, and Social Strengths.

The opposite of a virtue is a vice. Vice is a habitual, repeated practice of wrongdoing. One way of organizing the vices is as the corruption of the virtues. As Aristotle noted, however, the virtues can have several opposites. Virtues can be considered the mean between two extremes, as the Latin maxim dictates in medio stat virtus—in the centre lies virtue. For instance, both cowardice and rashness are opposites of courage; contrary to prudence are both over caution and insufficient caution; the opposites of pride (a virtue) are undue humility and excessive vanity. A more "modern" virtue, tolerance, can be considered the mean between the two extremes of narrow mindedness on the one hand and over acceptance on the other. Vices can therefore be identified as the opposites of virtues – but with the caveat that each virtue could have many different opposites, all distinct from each other. Within the Chinese [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy) philosophy and Traditional Chinese Medicine vice and virtue are expressed as excess or deficiency.