Редукционная маммопластика: восстановление формы и здоровья груди

Plastic surgery procedure

Reduction mammoplasty (also breast reduction and reduction mammaplasty) is the plastic surgery procedure for reducing the size of large breasts. In a breast reduction surgery for re establishing a functional bust that is proportionate to the patient's body, the critical corrective consideration is the tissue viability of the nipple–areola complex (NAC), to ensure the functional sensitivity and lactational capability of the breasts. The indications for breast reduction surgery are three fold – physical, aesthetic, and psychological – the restoration of the bust, of the patient's self image, and of the patient's mental health. In corrective practice, the surgical techniques and praxis for reduction mammoplasty also are applied to mastopexy (breast lift).

The patient with macromastia presents heavy, enlarged breasts that sag and cause chronic pains to the head, neck, shoulders, and back; an oversized bust also causes secondary health problems, such as poor blood circulation, impaired breathing (inability to fill the lungs with air); chafing of the skin of the chest and the lower breast (inframammary intertrigo); brassière strap indentations to the shoulders; and the improper fit of clothes. In the patient affected by gigantomastia (>1,000 gm overweight per breast), the average breast volume reduction diminished the oversized bust by three brassière cup sizes. The surgical reduction of abnormally enlarged breasts resolves the physical symptoms and the functional limitations imposed by a bodily disproportionate bust; thereby, it improves a patient's physical and mental health. Afterwards, the patient's ability to comfortably perform physical activities previously impeded by oversized breasts improves emotional health (self esteem) by reducing anxiety and lessening psychological depression.

The medical history records the patient's age, the number of children the patient has borne, the patient's breast feeding practices, plans for pregnancy and nursing of the infant, medication allergies, and tendency to bleeding. Additional to the personal medical information are the patient's history of tobacco smoking and concomitant diseases, breast surgery and breast disease histories, family history of breast cancer, and complaints of neck, back, shoulder pain, breast sensitivity, rashes, infection, and upper extremity numbness. The physical examination records and establishes the accurate measures of the patient's body mass index, vital signs, the mass of each breast, the degree of inframammary intertrigo present, the degree of breast ptosis, the degree of enlargement of each breast, lesions to the skin envelope, the degree of sensation in the nipple–areola complex (NAC), and discharges from the nipple. Also noted are the secondary effects of the enlarged breasts, such as shoulder notching by the brassière strap from the breast weight, kyphosis (excessive, backwards curvature of the thoracic region of the spinal column), skin irritation, and skin rash affecting the breast crease (IMF).

Large breasts are usually developed during thelarche (the pubertal breast development stage), but they can also develop postpartum, after gaining weight, at menopause, and at any age. Macromastia usually develops in consequence to the hypertrophy (overdevelopment) of adipose fat, rather than to milk gland hypertrophy. Moreover, many are genetically predisposed to developing large breasts, the size and weight of which are often increased, either by pregnancy, by weight gain, or by both conditions; there also exist iatrogenic (physician caused) conditions such as post–mastectomy and post–lumpectomy asymmetry. Nonetheless, it is statistically rare for a young person to experience virginal mammary hypertrophy that results in massive, oversized breasts, and recurrent breast hypertrophy. The abnormal enlargement of the breast tissues to a volume in excess of the normal bust to body proportions can be caused either by the overdevelopment of the milk glands or of the adipose tissue, or by a combination of both occurrences of hypertrophy. The resultant breast volume increases can range from the mild (<300 gm) to the moderate (ca. 300–800 gm) to the severe (>800 gm). Macromastia can be manifested either as a unilateral condition or as a bilateral condition (single breasted enlargement or double breasted enlargement) that can occur in combination with sagging, breast ptosis that is determined by the degree to which the nipple has descended below the inframammary fold (IMF).

Breast hypertrophy (macromastia and gigantomastia) does not respond to medical therapy, but a weight reduction regimen for the certain patients can alleviate some of the excessive size and volume of abnormally enlarged breasts. Physical therapy provides some relief for neck, back, or shoulder pain. Skin care will diminish breast crease inflammation and lessen the symptoms caused by moisture, such as irritation, chafing, infection, and bleeding.

The traditional surgical techniques for breast reduction remodel the breast mound using a skin and glandular (breast tissue) pedicle (inferior, superior, central), and then trim and re drape the skin envelope into a new breast of natural size, shape, and contour; it produces long surgical scars upon the breast hemisphere. In response, L. Benelli, in 1990, presented the round block mammoplasty, a minimal scar periareolar incision technique that produces only a periareolar scar – around the NAC, where the dark to light skin color transition hides the surgical scar.

A reduction mammoplasty to re size enlarged breasts and to correct breast ptosis resects (cuts and removes) excess tissues (glandular, adipose, skin), overstretched suspensory ligaments, and transposes the NAC higher upon the breast hemisphere. During puberty, the breast grows in consequence to the influences of the hormones estrogen and progesterone; as a mammary gland, the breast is composed of lobules of glandular tissue, each of which is drained by a lactiferous duct that empties to the nipple. Most of the volume (ca. 90%) and rounded contour of the breasts are conferred by the adipose fat interspersed amongst the lobules, except during pregnancy and lactation, when breast milk constitutes most of the breast volume. Anatomically, the breast topography and the hemispheric locale of the NAC are particular to each individual; thus, the desirable, average measurements are a 21–23 cm sternal distance (nipple to sternum bone notch), and a 5–7 cm inferior limb distance (NAC to IMF).

The arterial blood supply of the breast has medial and lateral vascular components; it is supplied with blood by the internal mammary artery (from the medial aspect), the lateral thoracic artery (from the lateral aspect), and the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th intercostal perforating arteries. Drainage of venous blood from the breast is by the superficial vein system under the dermis, and by the deep vein system parallel to the artery system. The primary lymph drainage system is the retromammary lymph plexus in the pectoral fascia. Sensation in the breast is established by the peripheral nervous system innervation of the anterior and lateral cutaneous branches of the 4th, 5th, and 6th intercostal nerves, and thoracic spinal nerve 4 (T4 nerve) innervates and supplies sensation to the NAC.

In realizing the breast reduction corrections, the plastic surgeon takes anatomic and histologic account of the biomechanical, load bearing properties of the glandular, adipose, and skin tissues that compose and support the breast; among the properties of the soft tissues of the breast is near incompressibility (Poisson's ratio of ~0.5). Rib cage. The 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th ribs of the thoracic cage are the structural supports for the mammary glands. Chest muscles. The breasts overlay the pectoralis major muscle, the pectoralis minor muscle, and the intercostal muscles (between the ribs), and can extend to and cover a portion of the (front) anterior serratus muscle (attached to the ribs, the rib muscles, and the shoulder blade), and to the rectus abdominis muscle (a long, flat muscle extending up the torso, from pubic bone to rib cage). The body posture of the patient exerts physical stresses upon the pectoralis major muscles and the pectoralis minor muscles, which cause the weight of the breasts to induce static and dynamic shear forces (when standing and when walking), compression forces (when lying supine), and tension forces (when kneeling on four limbs). Pectoralis fascia. The pectoralis major muscle is covered with a thin superficial membrane, the pectoral fascia, which has many prolongations intercalated among its fasciculi (fascicles); at the midline, it is attached to the front of the sternum, above it is attached to the clavicle (collar bone), while laterally and below, it is continuous with the fascia. Suspensory ligaments. The subcutaneous layer of adipose tissue in the breast is traversed with thin suspensory ligaments (Cooper's ligaments) that extend obliquely to the skin surface, and from the skin to the deep pectoral fascia. The structural stability provided by the Cooper's ligaments derives from its closely packed bundles of collagen fibers oriented in parallel; the principal, ligament component cell is the fibroblast, interspersed throughout the parallel collagen fiber bundles of the shoulder, axilla, and thorax ligaments. Glandular tissue. As a mammary gland, the breast comprises lobules (milk glands at each lobe tip) and the lactiferous ducts (milk passages), which widen to form an ampulla (sac) at the nipple. Adipose tissue. The fat tissue of the breast is composed of lipidic fluid (60–85% weight) that is 90–99 per cent triglycerides, free fatty acids, diglycerides, cholesterol phospholipids, and minute quantities of cholesterol esters, and monoglycerides; the other components are water (5–30% weight) and protein (2–3% weight). Fatty tissue. In biology, adipose tissue (/ˈædəˌpoʊs/), or body fat, fat depot, or just fat, is loose connective tissue composed of adipocytes. It is technically composed of roughly only 80% fat; fat in its solitary state exists in the liver and muscles. Adipose tissue is derived from lipoblasts. Its main role is to store energy in the form of lipids, although it also cushions and insulates the body. Far from hormonally inert, adipose tissue has in recent years been recognized as a major endocrine organ[1], as it produces hormones such as leptin, resistin, and the cytokine TNFα. Moreover, adipose tissue can affect other organ systems of the body and may lead to disease. Obesity or being overweight in humans and most animals does not depend on body weight but on the amount of body fat – to be specific, adipose tissue. Two types of adipose tissue exist: white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT). The formation of adipose tissue appears to be controlled in part by the adipose gene. Adipose tissue was first identified by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner in 1551. The skin envelope. The breast skin is in three layers: (i) the epidermis, (ii) the dermis, and (iii) the hypodermis. The epidermis is 50–100 μm thick, and is composed of a stratum corneum of flat keratin cells, that is 10–20 μm thick; it protects the underlying viable epidermis, which is composed of keratinizing epithelial cells. The dermis is mostly collagen and elastin fibers embedded to a viscous water and glycoprotein medium. The fibers of the upper dermis ("papillary dermis") are thinner than the fibers of the deep dermis, thus the skin envelope is 1–3 mm thick. The thickness of the hypodermis (adipocyte cells) varies between individuals, and between body parts. The skin of the nipple and areola is further composed of a modified and specialized myoepithelium that is responsible for contraction in response to stimuli.

Reduction mammoplasty, either surgery or lipectomy, proportionately re sizes the enlarged, sagging breasts of a patient affected with macromastia (>500 gm increase per breast) or with gigantomastia (>1,000 gm increase per breast). Breast reduction surgery has two technical aspects: (i) the skin incision pattern and the skin and glandular tissue excision technique applied for access to and removal of breast parenchyma tissue. The incision pattern and the area of skin envelope tissue to be removed determine the locales and the lengths of the surgical scars; (ii) the final shape and contour of the reduced breast are determined by the area of the tissues remaining in the breast, and that the skin and glandular tissue pedicle has a proper supply of nerves and blood vessels (arterial and venous) that ensure its tissue viability.

The inferior pedicle (central mound) features a blood vessel supply (arterial and venous) for the NAC from an inferior, centrally based attachment to the chest wall. The skin pedicle maintains the innervation and vascular viability of the NAC, which produces a reduced, sensitive breast with full lactational capability and function. The volume and size reduction of hypertrophied breasts is performed with a periareolar incision to the NAC, which then extends downwards, following the natural curve of the breast hemisphere. After cutting and removing the requisite quantities of tissue (glandular, adipose, skin), the NAC is transposed higher upon the breast hemisphere; thereby, the inferior pedicle technique produces an elevated bust with breasts that are proportionate to the patients's person. Breast reduction with an inferior pedicle occasionally produces breasts that appear squared; despite this, the technique effectively reduces the very enlarged breasts of macromastia and gigantomastia.

The breast reduction performed with the vertical scar technique usually produces a well projected bust featuring breasts with short incision scars and a NAC elevated by means of a pedicle (superior, medial, lateral) that maintains the biologic and functional viability of the NAC. The increased projection of the reduced bust is achieved by medially gathering the folds of the skin envelope and suturing the inner and outer portions of the remaining breast gland to provide a support pillar, and upward projection of the NAC The vertical scar reduction mammoplasty is best suited for removing small areas of the skin envelope and small volumes of internal tissues (glandular, adipose) from the lateral and the inferior portions of the breast hemisphere; thus the short incision scars.

The breast reduction performed with the horizontal scar technique features a horizontal incision along the inframammary fold (IMF) and a NAC pedicle. To elevate the NAC, the technique usually employs either an inferior pedicle or an inferior lateral pedicle, and features no vertical incision (like the anchor pattern). The horizontal scar technique best applies to the patient whose oversized breasts are too large for a vertical incision technique (e. g. the lollipop pattern); and it has two therapeutic advantages: no vertical incision scar to the breast hemisphere, and better healing of the periareolar scar of the transposed NAC. The potential disadvantages are box shaped breasts with thick (hypertrophied) incision scars, especially at the inframammary fold.

The breast reduction performed with the free nipple graft technique transposes the NAC as a tissue graft without a blood supply, without a skin and glandular pedicle. The therapeutic advantage is the greater volume of breast tissues (glandular, adipose, skin) that can be resected to produce a proportionate breast. The therapeutic disadvantage is a breast without a sensitive NAC, and without lactational capability. The medically indicated candidates are: the patient whose health presents a high risk of ischemia (localized tissue anemia) of the NAC, which can cause tissue necrosis; the diabetic patient; the patient who is a tobacco smoker; the patient whose oversized breasts have an approximate NAC to IMF measure of 20 cm; and the patient who has macromastia, requiring much resecting of the breast tissues.

The breast reduction performed with the liposuction only technique usually applies to the patient whose oversized breasts require the removal of a medium volume of internal tissue, and to the patient whose health precludes the extended anaesthesia typical of surgical breast reduction operations. The ideal lipectomy candidate is the patient whose low density breasts are principally composed of adipose tissue, have a relatively elastic skin envelope, and manifest mild ptosis. The therapeutic advantages of the liposuction only technique are the small incision scars required for access to the breast interior; hence, a shorter post operative healing period for the incision scars. The therapeutic disadvantage is limited breast reduction volumes. There is no evidence to support using drains during breast reduction surgery.

The patient is instructed to resume normal life activities, and to eat a light diet, post operative, on the day of the breast reduction surgery; to resume washing in a shower at 1 day post operative; to avoid strenuous physical activity, and to wear a sports brassière; the convalescence regimen is for three months post operative. The patient is also informed that the wrinkles at the bottom of the vertical limb of the scar usually resolve and fade within one–six months post operative, but some cases may require surgical revision of the vertical scar. Scheduled follow up consultations ensure a satisfactory outcome to the breast reduction surgery, and facilitate the early identification and management of medical complications. Limited evidence shows no significant benefit in the use of wound drains after reduction mammoplasty.

The post operative complications occurred include seroma, wound dehiscence, hematoma; partial NAC necrosis occurred in 10 per cent of the reduced breasts, but, after refinement of the Lejour technique, the study Vertical Mammaplasty: Early Complications After 250 Personal Consecutive Cases (1999) reported a reduced incidence rate of 7.0 percent in the 324 breast reductions performed in 167 patients. Moreover, the incidence of such post operative complications is greater among the patients whose breasts required large volume resection of the parenchyma; in patients who were obese; in patients who were tobacco smokers; and in young patients. Furthermore, wound dehiscence, epidermolysis, adipose tissue necrosis, and infection occur less among patients who undergo Lejour technique breast reduction than among patients who undergo a periareolar, anchor pattern breast reduction, or an inferior pedicle breast reduction. Nonetheless, bottom edge asymmetry occurs more among Lejour technique patients; the revision surgery rates can be up to 10 percent. Moreover, the liposuctioning of the breast does not increase the rate of local medical complications; decreased NAC sensitivity occurs in 10 percent of patients, and total NAC insensitivity occurs in 1.0 per cent of women.

The reliability of the lipectomy procedure was confirmed in two studies. The first, Tumescent Technique, Tumescent Anesthesia & Microcannular Liposuction (2000), reported that tumescent liposuction is a reliable reduction mammoplasty procedure, which yields consistent results of size, appearance, and texture of the reduced volume breasts. The second study by Daniel Lanzer, Breast Reduction with Liposuction (2002), about a 250 patient cohort, reported that the application of tumescent liposuction, as the sole reduction mammoplasty procedure, yielded consistent results wherein none of the patients had loose breast skin envelopes, irregular breast shape, permanent loss of sensation (either glandular, dermal, or of the NAC), scars, tissue necrosis, or infection. After fat cells are suctioned away via liposuction, it was quoted in the Obesity journal that overall body fat generally returned to the same level as before treatment, despite maintaining the previous diet and exercise regimen. While the fat returned somewhat to the treated area, most of the increased fat occurred in the abdominal area. Visceral fat the fat surrounding the internal organs increased, and this condition has been linked to life shortening diseases such as diabetes, stroke, and heart attack.