История мер и весов: от средневековья до современности.

The following systems arose from earlier systems, and in many cases utilise parts of much older systems. For the most part they were used to varying degrees in the Middle Ages and surrounding time periods. Some of these systems found their way into later systems, such as the Imperial system and even SI.

From May 1, 1683, King Christian V of Denmark introduced an office to oversee weights and measures, a justervæsen, to be led by Ole Rømer. The definition of the alen was set to 2 Rhine feet. Rømer later discovered that differing standards for the Rhine foot existed, and in 1698 an iron Copenhagen standard was made. A pendulum definition for the foot was first suggested by Rømer, introduced in 1820, and changed in 1835. The metric system was introduced in 1907.

pund – Pound, from 1683 the weight of 1/62 fot3 of water, 499.75 g

Pint – 0.6 L

Ons, Once – 1/16 pond = 30.881 g
Pond (Amsterdam) – 494.09 g (other ponds were also in use)
Scheepslast – 4000 Amsterdam pond = 1976.4 kg = 2.1786 short tons

In Finland, approximate measures derived from body parts and were used for a long time, some being later standardised for the purpose of commerce. Some Swedish, and later some Russian units have also been used.

vaaksa – The distance between the tips of little finger and thumb, when the fingers are fully extended. kyynärä – c. 60 cm – The distance from the elbow to the fingertips. syli – fathom, c. 180 cm – The distance between the fingertips of both hands when the arms are raised horizontally on the sides. virsta – 2672 m (Swedish), 1068.84 m (Russian)
poronkusema – c. 7.5 km – The distance a reindeer walks between two spots it urinates on. This unit originates from Lapland (i. e. Sápmi). peninkulma – 10.67 km – The distance a barking dog can be heard in still air.

tynnyrinala – 4936.5 m2 – The area (of field) that could be sown with one barrel of grain.

kannu – 2.6172 L
kappa – 5.4961 L

leiviskä – 8.5004 kg

kortteli – 148 mm (length) or 0.327 L (volume)

In France, again, there were many local variants. For instance, the lieue could vary from 3.268 km in Beauce to 5.849 km in Provence. Between 1812 and 1839, many of the traditional units continued in metrified adaptations as the mesures usuelles. In Paris, the redefinition in terms of metric units made 1 m = 443.296 ligne = 3 pied 11.296 ligne. In Quebec, the surveys in French units were converted using the relationship 1 pied (of the French variety; the same word is used for English feet as well) = 12.789 inches (of English origin). Thus a square arpent was 5299296.0804 in2 or about 36,801 ft2 or 0.8448 acre. There were many local variations; the metric conversions below apply to the Quebec and Paris definitions.

ligne – 1/12 pouce 2.2558 mm
pouce – Inch, 1/12 pied 27.070 mm
pied – Foot, varied through times, the Paris pied de roi is 324.84 mm. Used by Coulomb in manuscripts relating to the inverse square law of electrostatic repulsion. Isaac Newton used the "Paris foot" in his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. 1 Roman cubit = 444 mm (so 10000 Roman cubits = 4.44 km, a closer approximation to 1/25 degree)
toise – Fathom, 6 pieds. Originally introduced by Charlemagne in 790, it is now considered to be 1.949 m.
arpent – 30 toises or 180 pieds, 58.471 m
lieue de poste – Legal league, 2000 toises, 3.898 km
lieue metrique – Metric system adaptation, 4.000 km
lieue commune – French land league, 4.452 km, 1/25 Equatorial degree
lieue marine – French (late) sea league, 5.556 km, 3 nautical miles.

litron – 0.831018 litres

livre – 0.4895 kg
quintal – 100 livres, 48.95 kg

Up to the introduction of the metric system, almost every town in Germany had their own definitions. It is said that by 1810, in Baden alone, there were 112 different Ellen.

Before 1541, there were no common definition for length measures in Norway, and local variants flourished. In 1541, an alen in Denmark and Norway was defined by law to be the Sjælland alen. Subsequently, the alen was defined by law as 2 Rhine feet from 1683. From 1824, the basic unit was defined as a fot being derived from astronomy as the length of a one second pendulum times 12/38 at a latitude of 45°. The metric system was introduced in 1887.

skrupel – Scruple, 1/12 linje or approx. 0.18 mm. linje – Line, 1/12 tomme or approx. 2.18 mm
tomme – Thumb (inch), 1/12 fot, approx. 2.61 cm. This unit was commonly used for measuring timber until the 1970s. Nowadays, the word refers invariably to the Imperial inch, 2.54 cm. kvarter – Quarter, 1/4 alen. fot – Foot, 1/2 alen. From 1824, 31.374 cm. alen – Forearm, 62.748 cm from 1824, 62.75 cm from 1683, 63.26 cm from 1541. Before that, local variants. favn – Fathom (pl. favner), 1.882 m.
stang – Rod, 5 alen or 3.1375 m
lås – 28.2 m
steinkast – Stone's throw, perhaps 25 favner, used to this day as a very approximate measure. fjerdingsvei – Quarter mile, alt. fjerding, 1/4 mil, i. e. 2.82375 km. rast –Lit. "rest", the old name of the mil. A suitable distance between rests when walking. Believed to be approx. 9 km before 1541.
mil – Norwegian mile, spelled miil prior to 1862, 18000 alen or 11.295 km. Before 1683, a mil was defined as 17600 alen or 11.13 km. The unit survives to this day, but in a metric 10 km adaptation
landmil – Old land mile, 11.824 km.

skjeppe – 1/8 tønne, i. e. 17.4 L.
tønne – Barrel, 139.2 L.
favn – 1 alen by 1 favn by 1 favn, 2.232 m3, used for measuring firewood to this day.

ort – 0.9735 g
merke – From Roman pound, (pl. merker), 249.4 g, 218.7 g before 1683.
pund – Pound, alt. skålpund, 2 merker 0.4984 kg, was 0.46665 kg before 1683
bismerpund – 12 pund, 5.9808 kg
vette – 28.8 mark or 6.2985 kg. laup – alt. 'spann', used for butter, 17.93 kg (approx. 16.2 L). våg – 1/8 skippund, 17.9424 kg. skippund – Ships pound, 159.488 kg. Was defined as 151.16 kg in 1270.

skilling – Shilling, see riksdaler and speciedaler. ort – See riksdaler and speciedaler. riksdaler – Until 1813, Norwegian thaler. 1 riksdaler is 4 ort or 6 mark or 96 skilling. speciedaler – Since 1816. 1 speciedaler is 5 ort or 120 skilling. From 1876, 1 speciedaler is 4 kroner (Norwegian crown, NOK).

The various systems of weights and measures used in Portugal until the 19th century combine remote Roman influences with medieval influences from northern Europe and Islam. The Roman and northern European influences were more present in the north. The Islamic influence was more present in the south of the country. Fundamental units like the alqueire and the almude were imported by the northwest of Portugal in the 11th century, before the country became independent of León. The gradual long term process of standardization of weights and measures in Portugal is documented mainly since the mid 14th century. In 1352, municipalities requested standardization in a parliament meeting (Cortes). In response, Afonso IV decided to set the alna (aune) of Lisbon as standard for the linear measures used for color fabrics across the country. A few years later, Pedro I carried a more comprehensive reform, as documented in the parliament meeting of 1361: the arrátel folforinho of Santarém should be used for weighing meat; the arroba of Lisbon would be the standard for the remaining weights; cereals should be measured by the alqueire of Santarém; the almude of Lisbon should be used for wine. With advances, adjustments and setbacks, this framework predominated until the end of the 15th century. Further information: Portuguese customary units.

The measures of the old Romanian system varied greatly not only between the three Romanian states (Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania), but sometimes also inside the same country. The origin of some of the measures are the Latin (such as iugăr unit), Slavic (such as vadră unit) and Greek (such as dram unit) and Turkish (such as palmac unit) systems. This system is no longer in use since the adoption of the metric system in 1864.