Процесс создания текста: от идеи до воплощения

Process in which words and phrases are formed to produce a text

A writing process describes a sequence of physical and mental actions that people take as they produce any kind of text. These actions nearly universally involve tools for physical or digital inscription: e. g., chisels, pencils, brushes, chalk, dyes, keyboards, touchscreens, etc. ; these tools all have particular affordances that shape writers' processes. Writing processes are highly individuated and task specific; they often involve other kinds of activities that are not usually thought of as writing per se (talking, drawing, reading, browsing, etc. ).

In 1972, Donald M. Murray published a brief manifesto titled "Teach Writing as a Process Not Product", in which he argued that English teachers' conventional training in literary criticism caused them to hold students' work to unhelpful standards of highly polished "finished writing". Teachers, he explained, ought to focus less on correcting students' written products and focus more on involving students in "discovery through language", which Murray believed for "most writers most of the time" involved a process: i. e., stages of "pre writing, writing and rewriting". as a landmark vocalization of the differences between process and product orientations in the teaching of writing. Within a decade, Maxine Hairston was to observe that the teaching of writing had undergone a transformation in moving from a focus on written products to writing processes. These categories were theorized more fully in subsequent scholarship. For example, pre writing was defined by Project English experimental researcher D. Gordon Rohman as the "sort of 'thinking' [that] precedes writing" and the "activity of mind which brings forth and develops ideas, plans, designs". According to Rohman, writing begins "at the point where the 'writing idea' is ready for the words and the page". Some have linked this three stage process to the five canons of rhetoric: pre writing to invention and arrangement, writing to style, revising to delivery and sometimes memory. While contemporary research on writing processes still accepts that some kind of process is necessarily involved in producing any written text, it now collectively endorses "the fundamental idea that no codifiable or generalizable writing process exists or could exist". In this view, "writing processes are historically dynamic – not psychic states, cognitive routines, or neutral social relationships". In terms of "pre writing" for instance, writing processes often begin long before any visible documentable work or easily categorizable steps are observable. From the contemporary perspective of composition studies, it is thus inaccurate to assume that any authentic writing process (i. e., one not contrived as part of a school assignment or laboratory setting) necessarily involves a linear sequence of "stages". Rather different kinds of activities emerge as overlapping parts of a complex whole or parts of a repeating process that can be repeated multiple times throughout anyone's process of composing a particular document. For example, writers routinely discover that editorial changes trigger brainstorming and a change of purpose; that drafting is temporarily interrupted to correct a misspelling; or that the boundary between pre writing and drafting is less than obvious.

The writing process has been described by composition scholars in a variety of ways with attention to "developmental, expressive, and social" elements.

A historical response to process is concerned primarily with the manner in which writing has been shaped and governed by historical and social forces. These forces are dynamic and contextual, and therefore render any static iteration of process unlikely. Notable scholars that have conducted this type of inquiry include media theorists such as Marshall McLuhan, Walter Ong, Gregory Ulmer, and Cynthia Selfe. Much of McLuhan's work, for example, centered around the impact of written language on oral cultures, degrees to which various media are accessible and interactive, and the ways in which electronic media determine communication patterns. His evaluation of technology as a shaper of human societies and psyches indicates a strong connection between historical forces and literacy practices.

Patricia Bizzell (a professor with a Ph. D in English and former President of Rhetoric Society of America) argues that even though educators may have an understanding of "how" the writing process occurs, educators should not assume that this knowledge can answer the question "about 'why' the writer makes certain choices in certain situations", since writing is always situated within a discourse community. She discusses how the Flower and Hayes model relies on what is called the process of "translating ideas into visible language". Even grammar has a social turn in writing: "It may be that to fully account for the contempt that some errors of usage arouse, we will have to understand better than we do the relationship between language, order, and those deep psychic forces that perceived linguistic violations seem to arouse in otherwise amiable people". So one cannot simply say a thing is right or wrong. There is a difference of degrees attributed to social forces.

According to the expressivist theory, the process of writing is centered on the writer's transformation. This involves the writer changing in the sense that voice and identity are established and the writer has a sense of his or her self. In expressivist pedagogy, writing is a process used to create meaning. An author’s sense of self is emphasized for bringing social change. This theory became popular in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Several scholars have noted that the expressivist process is incredibly valuable when it comes to writer’s forming their own identities within writing, Michele Zugnoni and Anne Harrington in particular. Zugnoni discusses the ways in which including self reflection and self expression within writing is incredibly helpful in allowing first generation students to build a sense of individuality and purpose. states that the exclusion of personal experience in an academic writing assignment disregards the value of a writer’s experiences. that academic inquiry focuses on discovery wherein expressivism is the discovery and analysis of your personal experiences. It is discussed that the act of writing about one’s personal experience not only helps to make sense of those experiences but allows them to build their voice, Bruce Ballenger stating his own students had told him that writing had been put into a new light when allowed to express their personal experiences. According to Richard Fulkerson's article "Four Philosophies of Composition", the focus of expressivism is for writers to have " an interesting, credible, honest, and personal voice". Moreover, proponents of the expressivist process view this theory as a way for students to become fulfilled and healthy both emotionally and mentally. Those who teach this process often focus on journaling and other classroom activities to focus on student self discovery and at times, low stakes writing. Prominent figures in the field include John Dixon, Ken Macrorie, Lou Kelly, Donald C. Stewart and Peter Elbow.

As appealing as document sharing may be for students with autism in particular, being able to contextualize one's life story in the context of their disability may prove the most powerful expression of the overall writing process. Rose illustrates—and fine tune his or her style. Having revised the draft for content, the writer's task is now to make changes that will improve the communication with the reader. Depending on the genre, the writer may choose to adhere to the conventions of Standard English. These conventions are still being developed and the rulings on controversial issues may vary depending on the source. For example, Strunk and White's Elements of Style, first published in 1918, is considered by some to be an authority on stylistic conventions but has been derided by linguist Geoffrey K. Pullum as "stupid". An electronic resource is the Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL), where writers may search a specific issue to find an explanation of grammatical and mechanical conventions.

Berthoff, Ann. The Making of Meaning: Metaphors, Models and Maxims for Writing Teachers. Boynton/Cook Publishers, 1981. Brand, Alice G. "The Why of Cognition: Emotion and the Writing Process". CCC 38.4 (1987): 436–443. Bruffee, Kenneth A. "Collaborative Learning and the 'Conversation of Mankind'" College English 46.7 (1984): 635–652. Elbow, Peter. Writing without Teachers 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, USA, 1998. Guffey, Rhodes and Rogin. "Business Communication: Process and Product". Third Brief Canadian Edition. Thomson Nelson, 2010. Murray, Donald. Writing to Learn 8th ed. Wadsworth. 2004
Pattison, Darcy. Paper Lightning: Prewriting Activities to Spark Creativity and Help Students Write Effectively. Cottonwood Press, 2008. Sommers, Nancy. "Revision Strategies of Student Writers and Experienced Adult Writers". CCC 31.4 (1980): 378–388.