Грамматика арабского языка

Grammar of the Arabic language

Arabic grammar (النَّحْوُ العَرَبِيُّ) is the grammar of the Arabic language. Arabic is a Semitic language and its grammar has many similarities with the grammar of other Semitic languages. Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic have largely the same grammar; colloquial spoken varieties of Arabic can vary in different ways. The largest differences between classical and colloquial Arabic are the loss of morphological markings of grammatical case; changes in word order, an overall shift towards a more analytic morphosyntax, the loss of the previous system of grammatical mood, along with the evolution of a new system; the loss of the inflected passive voice, except in a few relict varieties; restriction in the use of the dual number and (for most varieties) the loss of the feminine plural. Many Arabic dialects, Maghrebi Arabic in particular, also have significant vowel shifts and unusual consonant clusters. Unlike in other dialects, first person singular verbs in Maghrebi Arabic begin with a n (ن). This phenomenon can also be found in the Maltese language, which itself emerged from Sicilian Arabic.

The identity of the oldest Arabic grammarian is disputed; some sources state that it was Abu al Aswad al Du'ali, who established diacritical marks and vowels for Arabic in the mid 600s, Others have said that the earliest grammarian would have been Ibn Abi Ishaq (died AD 735/6, AH 117). The schools of Basra and Kufa further developed grammatical rules in the late 8th century with the rapid rise of Islam, using Quran as the main source for Arabic grammar rules. From the school of Basra, generally regarded as being founded by Abu Amr ibn al Ala, two representatives laid important foundations for the field: Al Khalil ibn Ahmad al Farahidi authored the first Arabic dictionary and book of Arabic prosody, and his student Sibawayh authored the first book on theories of Arabic grammar. with most of the school's development undertaken by later authors. The efforts of al Farahidi and Sibawayh consolidated Basra's reputation as the analytic school of grammar, while the Kufan school was regarded as the guardian of Arabic poetry and Arab culture. Early Arabic grammars were more or less lists of rules, without the detailed explanations which would be added in later centuries. The earliest schools were different not only in some of their views on grammatical disputes, but also their emphasis. The school of Kufa excelled in Arabic poetry and exegesis of the Qur'an, in addition to Islamic law and Arab genealogy. The more rationalist school of Basra, on the other hand, focused more on the formal study of grammar.

Classical Arabic has 28 consonantal phonemes, including two semi vowels, which constitute the Arabic alphabet. It also has six vowel phonemes (three short vowels and three long vowels). These appear as various allophones, depending on the preceding consonant. Short vowels are not usually represented in the written language, although they may be indicated with diacritics. Word stress varies from one Arabic dialect to another. A rough rule for word stress in Classical Arabic is that it falls on the penultimate syllable of a word if that syllable is closed, and otherwise on the antepenultimate. Hamzat al waṣl (هَمْزة الوَصْل), elidable hamza, is a phonetic object prefixed to the beginning of a word for ease of pronunciation, since Literary Arabic doesn't allow consonant clusters at the beginning of a word. Elidable hamza drops out as a vowel, if a word is preceding it. This word will then produce an ending vowel, "helping vowel" to facilitate pronunciation. This short vowel may be, depending on the preceding vowel, a fatḥah (فَتْحة: ـَ ), pronounced as ; a kasrah (كَسْرة: ـِ ), pronounced as ; or a ḍammah (ضَمّة: ـُ ), pronounced as If the preceding word ends in a sukūn (سُكُون), meaning that it is not followed by a short vowel, the hamzat al waṣl assumes a kasrah The symbol ـّ (شَدّة shaddah) indicates gemination or consonant doubling. See more in Tashkīl.

In Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), nouns and adjectives (اِسْمٌ DIN) are declined, according to case (i‘rāb), state (definiteness), gender and number. In colloquial or spoken Arabic, there are a number of simplifications such as the loss of certain final vowels and the loss of case. A number of derivational processes exist for forming new nouns and adjectives. Adverbs can be formed from adjectives.

In a less formal Arabic, as in many spoken dialects, the endings ka, ki, and hu and many others have their final short vowel dropped, for example, كِتابُكَ kitābuka would become كِتابُك kitābuk for ease of pronunciation. This doesn't make a difference to the spelling as the diacritics used to represent short vowels are not usually written.

The above system is mostly unchanged in the colloquial varieties, other than the loss of the dual forms and (for most varieties) of the feminine plural. Some of the more notable changes:
The third person hi, him variants disappear. On the other hand, the first person nī/ ī/ ya variation is preserved exactly (including the different circumstances in which these variants are used), and new variants appear for many forms. For example, in Egyptian Arabic, the second person feminine singular appears either as ik or ki depending on various factors (e. g. the phonology of the preceding word); likewise, the third person masculine singular appears variously as u, hu, or (no ending, but stress is moved onto the preceding vowel, which is lengthened). In many varieties, the indirect object forms, which appear in Classical Arabic as separate words (e. g. lī "to me", lahu 'to him'), become fused onto the verb, following a direct object. These same varieties generally develop a circumfix for negation (from Classical mā shay’ 'not a thing', composed of two separate words). This can lead to complicated agglutinative constructs, such as Egyptian Arabic 'he didn't write it (fem.) to me'. (Egyptian Arabic in particular has many variant pronominal affixes used in different circumstances, and very intricate morphophonemic rules leading to a large number of complex alternations, depending on the particular affixes involved, the way they are put together, and whether the preceding verb ends in a vowel, a single consonant, or two consonants.) Other varieties instead use a separate Classical pseudo pronoun īyā for direct objects (but in Hijazi Arabic the resulting construct fuses with a preceding verb). Affixation of dual and sound plural nouns has largely vanished. Instead, all varieties possess a separate preposition with the meaning of "of", which replaces certain uses of the construct genitive (to varying degrees, depending on the particular variety). In Moroccan Arabic, the word is dyal (also d before a noun), e. g. l kitab dyal i "my book", since the construct state genitive is mostly unproductive. Egyptian Arabic has bitā‘ , which agrees in gender and number with the preceding noun (feminine bitā‘it/bita‘t, plural bitū‘ ). In Egyptian Arabic, the construct state genitive is still productive, hence either kitāb i or il kitāb bitā‘ i can be used for "my book" [the difference between them is similar to the difference between 'my book' and 'the book is mine'], but only il mu‘allimūn bitū‘ i "my teachers". The declined relative pronoun has vanished. In its place is an indeclinable particle, usually illi or similar. Various forms of the demonstrative pronouns occur, usually shorter than the Classical forms. For example, Moroccan Arabic uses ha l "this", dak l /dik l /duk l "that" (masculine/feminine/plural). Egyptian Arabic is unusual in that the demonstrative follows the noun, e. g. il kitāb da "this book", il binti di "this girl". Some of the independent pronouns have slightly different forms compared with their Classical forms. For example, usually forms similar to inta, inti "you (masc./fem. sg.)" occur in place of anta, anti, and (n)iḥna "we" occurs in place of naḥnu.

Verbs in Arabic (فعل fi‘l) are based on a root made up of three or four consonants (called a triliteral or quadriliteral root, respectively). The set of consonants communicates the basic meaning of a verb, e. g. k t b 'write', q r ’ 'read', ’ k l 'eat'. Changes to the vowels in between the consonants, along with prefixes or suffixes, specify grammatical functions such as tense, person and number, in addition to changes in the meaning of the verb that embody grammatical concepts such as mood (e. g. indicative, subjunctive, imperative), voice (active or passive), and functions such as causative, intensive, or reflexive. Since Arabic lacks an auxiliary verb "to have", constructions using li , ‘inda, and ma‘a with the pronominal suffixes are used to describe possession. For example: عنده بيت (ʿindahu bayt) – literally: At him (is) a house. → He has a house. For the negation of Arabic verbs, see Negation in Arabic.

The object of purpose [ar] (المفعول لأجله al maf'ūl li 'ajlihi) is an adverbial structure used to indicate purpose, motive, or reason for an action. It consists of a verbal noun derived from the main verb that appears in the accusative (منصوب manṣūb) case. In the modern era, Egyptian litterateur Shawqi Daif renewed the call for a reform of the commonly used description of Arabic grammar, suggesting to follow trends in Western linguistics instead.