Введение
Нестеклянная керамика
Earthenware is glazed or unglazed nonvitreous pottery that has normally been fired below 1200 °C (2192 °F). Basic earthenware, often called terracotta, absorbs liquids such as water. However, earthenware can be made impervious to liquids by coating it with a ceramic glaze, and such a process is used for the great majority of modern domestic earthenware. The main other important types of pottery are porcelain, bone china, and stoneware, all fired at high enough temperatures to vitrify. End applications include tableware and decorative ware such as figurines. Earthenware comprises "most building bricks, nearly all European pottery up to the seventeenth century, most of the wares of Egypt, Persia and the near East; Greek, Roman and Mediterranean, and some of the Chinese; and the fine earthenware which forms the greater part of our tableware today" ("today" being 1962). Pit fired earthenware dates back to as early as 29,000–25,000 BCE, and for millennia, only earthenware pottery was made, with stoneware gradually developing some 5,000 years ago, but then apparently disappearing for a few thousand years. Outside East Asia, porcelain was manufactured only from the 18th century CE, and then initially as an expensive luxury. After it is fired, earthenware is opaque and non vitreous, soft and capable of being scratched with a knife. bodies and hence are easier to shape by RAM press, roller head or potter's wheel than bone china or porcelain. Due to its porosity, fired earthenware, with a water absorption of 5 8%, must be glazed to be watertight. Earthenware has lower mechanical strength than bone china, porcelain or stoneware, and consequently articles are commonly made in thicker cross section, although they are still more easily chipped. Shaping
Firing
Earthenware can be produced at firing temperatures as low as 600 °C (1112 °F) and many clays will not fire successfully above about 1000 °C (1832 °F). Much historical pottery was fired somewhere around 800 °C (1472 °F), giving a wide margin of error where there was no precise way of measuring temperature, and very variable conditions within the kiln. Modern earthenware may be biscuit (or "bisque") fired to temperatures between and glost fired (or "glaze fired") to between Some studio potters follow the reverse practice, with a low temperature biscuit firing and a high temperature glost firing. Oxidising atmospheres are the most common. After firing, most earthenware bodies will be colored white, buff or red. For iron rich bodies earthenware, firing at comparatively low temperature in an oxidising atmosphere results in a red colour, whilst higher temperatures with a reducing atmosphere results in darker colours, including black. Higher firing temperatures may cause earthenware to bloat.
Майолика – это глазурованная или неглазурованная нестеклянная керамика, обычно обжигаемая при температуре ниже 1200 °C (2192 °F). Простая майолика, часто называемая терракотой, впитывает жидкости, такие как вода. Однако майолику можно сделать водонепроницаемой, покрыв ее керамической глазурью, и этот процесс используется для подавляющего большинства современной бытовой керамики. Другими важными видами керамики являются фарфор, костяной фарфор и каменная керамика, все они обжигаются при достаточно высоких температурах для витрификации. Области применения включают столовую посуду и декоративные изделия, такие как фигурки. Майолика включает в себя «большинство строительных кирпичей, почти всю европейскую керамику до семнадцатого века, большую часть изделий Египта, Персии и Ближнего Востока; греческую, римскую и средиземноморскую, а также часть китайской керамики; и изысканную майолику, составляющую основную часть нашей посуды сегодня» («сегодня» – 1962 год). Обжиг майолики в яме восходит к 29 000–25 000 гг. до н.э., и на протяжении тысячелетий изготавливалась только майолика, каменная керамика постепенно развивалась около 5000 лет назад, но затем, по-видимому, исчезла на несколько тысяч лет. За пределами Восточной Азии фарфор производился только с XVIII века н.э., и изначально как дорогостоящая роскошь. После обжига майолика непрозрачна и нестеклянна, мягка и может быть поцарапана ножом. Она имеет пластичные массы, и поэтому ее легче формовать на прессе, роликовой головке или гончарном круге, чем костяной фарфор или фарфор. Из-за пористости обожженная майолика с водопоглощением 5–8% должна быть глазурована для достижения водонепроницаемости. Майолика обладает более низкой механической прочностью, чем костяной фарфор, фарфор или каменная керамика, и, следовательно, изделия обычно изготавливаются с более толстым сечением, хотя они все еще более подвержены сколам.
Earthenware is glazed or unglazed nonvitreous pottery that has normally been fired below 1200 °C (2192 °F). Basic earthenware, often called terracotta, absorbs liquids such as water. However, earthenware can be made impervious to liquids by coating it with a ceramic glaze, and such a process is used for the great majority of modern domestic earthenware. The main other important types of pottery are porcelain, bone china, and stoneware, all fired at high enough temperatures to vitrify. End applications include tableware and decorative ware such as figurines. Earthenware comprises "most building bricks, nearly all European pottery up to the seventeenth century, most of the wares of Egypt, Persia and the near East; Greek, Roman and Mediterranean, and some of the Chinese; and the fine earthenware which forms the greater part of our tableware today" ("today" being 1962). Pit fired earthenware dates back to as early as 29,000–25,000 BCE, and for millennia, only earthenware pottery was made, with stoneware gradually developing some 5,000 years ago, but then apparently disappearing for a few thousand years. Outside East Asia, porcelain was manufactured only from the 18th century CE, and then initially as an expensive luxury. After it is fired, earthenware is opaque and non vitreous, soft and capable of being scratched with a knife. bodies and hence are easier to shape by RAM press, roller head or potter's wheel than bone china or porcelain. Due to its porosity, fired earthenware, with a water absorption of 5 8%, must be glazed to be watertight. Earthenware has lower mechanical strength than bone china, porcelain or stoneware, and consequently articles are commonly made in thicker cross section, although they are still more easily chipped. Shaping
Firing
Earthenware can be produced at firing temperatures as low as 600 °C (1112 °F) and many clays will not fire successfully above about 1000 °C (1832 °F). Much historical pottery was fired somewhere around 800 °C (1472 °F), giving a wide margin of error where there was no precise way of measuring temperature, and very variable conditions within the kiln. Modern earthenware may be biscuit (or "bisque") fired to temperatures between and glost fired (or "glaze fired") to between Some studio potters follow the reverse practice, with a low temperature biscuit firing and a high temperature glost firing. Oxidising atmospheres are the most common. After firing, most earthenware bodies will be colored white, buff or red. For iron rich bodies earthenware, firing at comparatively low temperature in an oxidising atmosphere results in a red colour, whilst higher temperatures with a reducing atmosphere results in darker colours, including black. Higher firing temperatures may cause earthenware to bloat.
Формовка
Earthenware is glazed or unglazed nonvitreous pottery that has normally been fired below 1200 °C (2192 °F). Basic earthenware, often called terracotta, absorbs liquids such as water. However, earthenware can be made impervious to liquids by coating it with a ceramic glaze, and such a process is used for the great majority of modern domestic earthenware. The main other important types of pottery are porcelain, bone china, and stoneware, all fired at high enough temperatures to vitrify. End applications include tableware and decorative ware such as figurines. Earthenware comprises "most building bricks, nearly all European pottery up to the seventeenth century, most of the wares of Egypt, Persia and the near East; Greek, Roman and Mediterranean, and some of the Chinese; and the fine earthenware which forms the greater part of our tableware today" ("today" being 1962). Pit fired earthenware dates back to as early as 29,000–25,000 BCE, and for millennia, only earthenware pottery was made, with stoneware gradually developing some 5,000 years ago, but then apparently disappearing for a few thousand years. Outside East Asia, porcelain was manufactured only from the 18th century CE, and then initially as an expensive luxury. After it is fired, earthenware is opaque and non vitreous, soft and capable of being scratched with a knife. bodies and hence are easier to shape by RAM press, roller head or potter's wheel than bone china or porcelain. Due to its porosity, fired earthenware, with a water absorption of 5 8%, must be glazed to be watertight. Earthenware has lower mechanical strength than bone china, porcelain or stoneware, and consequently articles are commonly made in thicker cross section, although they are still more easily chipped. Shaping
Firing
Earthenware can be produced at firing temperatures as low as 600 °C (1112 °F) and many clays will not fire successfully above about 1000 °C (1832 °F). Much historical pottery was fired somewhere around 800 °C (1472 °F), giving a wide margin of error where there was no precise way of measuring temperature, and very variable conditions within the kiln. Modern earthenware may be biscuit (or "bisque") fired to temperatures between and glost fired (or "glaze fired") to between Some studio potters follow the reverse practice, with a low temperature biscuit firing and a high temperature glost firing. Oxidising atmospheres are the most common. After firing, most earthenware bodies will be colored white, buff or red. For iron rich bodies earthenware, firing at comparatively low temperature in an oxidising atmosphere results in a red colour, whilst higher temperatures with a reducing atmosphere results in darker colours, including black. Higher firing temperatures may cause earthenware to bloat.
Обжиг
Earthenware is glazed or unglazed nonvitreous pottery that has normally been fired below 1200 °C (2192 °F). Basic earthenware, often called terracotta, absorbs liquids such as water. However, earthenware can be made impervious to liquids by coating it with a ceramic glaze, and such a process is used for the great majority of modern domestic earthenware. The main other important types of pottery are porcelain, bone china, and stoneware, all fired at high enough temperatures to vitrify. End applications include tableware and decorative ware such as figurines. Earthenware comprises "most building bricks, nearly all European pottery up to the seventeenth century, most of the wares of Egypt, Persia and the near East; Greek, Roman and Mediterranean, and some of the Chinese; and the fine earthenware which forms the greater part of our tableware today" ("today" being 1962). Pit fired earthenware dates back to as early as 29,000–25,000 BCE, and for millennia, only earthenware pottery was made, with stoneware gradually developing some 5,000 years ago, but then apparently disappearing for a few thousand years. Outside East Asia, porcelain was manufactured only from the 18th century CE, and then initially as an expensive luxury. After it is fired, earthenware is opaque and non vitreous, soft and capable of being scratched with a knife. bodies and hence are easier to shape by RAM press, roller head or potter's wheel than bone china or porcelain. Due to its porosity, fired earthenware, with a water absorption of 5 8%, must be glazed to be watertight. Earthenware has lower mechanical strength than bone china, porcelain or stoneware, and consequently articles are commonly made in thicker cross section, although they are still more easily chipped. Shaping
Firing
Earthenware can be produced at firing temperatures as low as 600 °C (1112 °F) and many clays will not fire successfully above about 1000 °C (1832 °F). Much historical pottery was fired somewhere around 800 °C (1472 °F), giving a wide margin of error where there was no precise way of measuring temperature, and very variable conditions within the kiln. Modern earthenware may be biscuit (or "bisque") fired to temperatures between and glost fired (or "glaze fired") to between Some studio potters follow the reverse practice, with a low temperature biscuit firing and a high temperature glost firing. Oxidising atmospheres are the most common. After firing, most earthenware bodies will be colored white, buff or red. For iron rich bodies earthenware, firing at comparatively low temperature in an oxidising atmosphere results in a red colour, whilst higher temperatures with a reducing atmosphere results in darker colours, including black. Higher firing temperatures may cause earthenware to bloat.
Майолику можно производить при температурах обжига всего 600 °C (1112 °F), и многие глины не будут успешно обжигаться выше 1000 °C (1832 °F). Большая часть исторической керамики обжигалась примерно при 800 °C (1472 °F), что давало большую погрешность, поскольку не было точного способа измерения температуры и условия в печи сильно варьировались. Современную майолику можно обжигать как черепчатую (или "бисквитную") при температурах между и глазуровать (или "повторно обжигать") при температурах между. Некоторые керамисты-любители придерживаются обратной практики: обжиг бисквита при низкой температуре и обжиг глазури при высокой температуре. Наиболее распространены окислительные атмосферы. После обжига большинство корпусов майолики будут окрашены в белый, бурый или красный цвет. Для богатых железом корпусов майолики обжиг при сравнительно низкой температуре в окислительной атмосфере приводит к красному цвету, в то время как более высокие температуры в восстановительной атмосфере приводят к более темным цветам, включая черный. Более высокие температуры обжига могут привести к раздуванию майолики.
Earthenware is glazed or unglazed nonvitreous pottery that has normally been fired below 1200 °C (2192 °F). Basic earthenware, often called terracotta, absorbs liquids such as water. However, earthenware can be made impervious to liquids by coating it with a ceramic glaze, and such a process is used for the great majority of modern domestic earthenware. The main other important types of pottery are porcelain, bone china, and stoneware, all fired at high enough temperatures to vitrify. End applications include tableware and decorative ware such as figurines. Earthenware comprises "most building bricks, nearly all European pottery up to the seventeenth century, most of the wares of Egypt, Persia and the near East; Greek, Roman and Mediterranean, and some of the Chinese; and the fine earthenware which forms the greater part of our tableware today" ("today" being 1962). Pit fired earthenware dates back to as early as 29,000–25,000 BCE, and for millennia, only earthenware pottery was made, with stoneware gradually developing some 5,000 years ago, but then apparently disappearing for a few thousand years. Outside East Asia, porcelain was manufactured only from the 18th century CE, and then initially as an expensive luxury. After it is fired, earthenware is opaque and non vitreous, soft and capable of being scratched with a knife. bodies and hence are easier to shape by RAM press, roller head or potter's wheel than bone china or porcelain. Due to its porosity, fired earthenware, with a water absorption of 5 8%, must be glazed to be watertight. Earthenware has lower mechanical strength than bone china, porcelain or stoneware, and consequently articles are commonly made in thicker cross section, although they are still more easily chipped. Shaping
Firing
Earthenware can be produced at firing temperatures as low as 600 °C (1112 °F) and many clays will not fire successfully above about 1000 °C (1832 °F). Much historical pottery was fired somewhere around 800 °C (1472 °F), giving a wide margin of error where there was no precise way of measuring temperature, and very variable conditions within the kiln. Modern earthenware may be biscuit (or "bisque") fired to temperatures between and glost fired (or "glaze fired") to between Some studio potters follow the reverse practice, with a low temperature biscuit firing and a high temperature glost firing. Oxidising atmospheres are the most common. After firing, most earthenware bodies will be colored white, buff or red. For iron rich bodies earthenware, firing at comparatively low temperature in an oxidising atmosphere results in a red colour, whilst higher temperatures with a reducing atmosphere results in darker colours, including black. Higher firing temperatures may cause earthenware to bloat.
Примеры глиняной посуды
Несмотря на то, что наиболее ценные виды керамики часто переходили на каменную посуду и фарфор по мере их разработки различными культурами, существует множество художественно значимых видов глиняной посуды. Вся древнегреческая и древнеримская керамика – это глиняная посуда, как и испано-мавританская керамика позднего Средневековья, которая развилась в традиции глазурованной керамики или фаянса в нескольких частях Европы, особенно знаменитая майолика итальянского Возрождения и голландская дельфтская керамика. Благодаря белой глазури они могли имитировать фарфор как из Восточной Азии, так и из Европы. К самым сложным изделиям из глиняной посуды, когда-либо созданным, относятся полноразмерные глазированные глиняные статуи луоханов династии Ляо (907–1125) из Исяня, посуда Святого Поршера середины XVI века, предположительно изготовленная для французского двора, и полноразмерные павлины из майолики, созданные компанией Mintons в 1860-х годах. В XVIII веке, особенно в английской керамике Стаффордшира, технические усовершенствования позволили создавать очень изысканные изделия, такие как кремовая посуда Уэджвуда, которая с большим успехом конкурировала с фарфором, что продемонстрировал его огромный кремовый сервиз «Лягушачья служба» для Екатерины Великой. Изобретение процессов трансферной печати сделало богато украшенную посуду достаточно доступной для гораздо более широких слоев населения в Европе. В Китае сансай – это керамика с глазурью на основе свинца, а терракота, как и в других местах, оставалась важным материалом для скульптуры. Этруски делали из нее большие скульптуры, такие как статуи, в то время как римляне использовали ее в основном для фигурок и рельефов Кампаны. Китайские расписные фигуры или захоронения эпохи Тан были сделаны из глиняной посуды, как и более поздние глазированные статуи луоханов из Исяня. После возрождения керамических фигурок из фарфора в Европе последовали фигурки из глиняной посуды, такие как популярные английские фигурки из Стаффордшира.