Рим тарихы: Ливийдің еңбектері (Рим тарихы: Ливийдің еңбектері)

First century BC Roman history by Livy

a work sometimes referred to as Ab Urbe Condita

The History of Rome, perhaps originally titled Annales, and frequently referred to as Ab Urbe Condita (italic=yes), is a monumental history of ancient Rome, written in Latin between 27 and 9 BC by the Roman historian Titus Livius, better known in English as "Livy". The work covers the period from the legends concerning the arrival of Aeneas and the refugees from the fall of Troy, to the city's founding in 753 BC, the expulsion of the Kings in 509 BC, and down to Livy's own time, during the reign of the emperor Augustus. The last event covered by Livy is the death of Drusus in 9 BC. The surviving books deal with the events down to 293 BC (books 1–10), and from 219 to 166 BC (books 21–45).

The History of Rome originally comprised 142 "books", 35 of which—Books 1–10 with the Preface and Books 21–45—still exist in reasonably complete form. In Oxyrhynchus, a similar summary of books 37–40, 47–55, and only small fragments of 88 was found on a roll of papyrus that is now in the British Museum classified as P. Oxy. IV 0668. There is another fragment, named P. Oxy. XI 1379, which represents a passage from the first book (I, 6) and that shows a high level of correctness. However, the Oxyrhynchus Epitome is damaged and incomplete.

Book numberStatusYears coveredMain events covered1Down to 510 BCFoundation myths: Aeneas, Ascanius, Romulus and Remus, Rape of the Sabine women; history of the Roman Kingdom, expulsion of Tarquinus Superbus.2509–468 BCFoundation of the Republic by Brutus, wars against Tarquinius Superbus and Porsena, Secession of the Plebs, Volscian Wars.3467–446 BCThe Decemvirate.4445–404 BCConflict of the Orders, murder of Spurius Maelius by Ahala, war against the Fidenates.5403–387 BCWar against Veii, Sack of Rome by Brennus.6387–366 BCStory of Marcus Manlius Capitolinus, Leges Liciniae Sextiae.7366–342 BCStories of Titus Manlius Torquatus and Marcus Valerius Corvus, First Samnite War.8341–322 BCFirst Samnite War, Latin War.9321–304 BCSecond Samnite War, defeat of the Caudine Forks, alternate history with Alexander the Great defeated by Rome.10303–293 BCThird Samnite War, sacrifice of Publius Decius Mus.11292–287 BCThird Samnite War, plague in Rome, Secession of the Plebs.12284–280 BCWar against the Senones, Pyrrhic War, campaigns against the Samnites and Italians, betrayal of Decius Vibullius at Rhegium.13280–278 BCPyrrhic War, treaty with Carthage, campaigns against Italic peoples.14278–272 BCPyrrhic War, treaty with Ptolemy II, Carthage breaks the treaty with Rome, campaigns against Italic peoples.15272–267 BCRome recovers Tarentum and Rhegium. The Picentes, Umbrians and Sallentini submit. 16264–263 BCFirst Punic War, first gladiatorial games.17260–256 BCFirst Punic War18255 BCFirst Punic War19251–241 BCFirst Punic War20237–220 BCWars against the Faliscans, Sardinians, Corsicans, Illyrians, Gauls, Insubres, and Istrians.21219–218 BCSecond Punic War: Battle of the Trebia.22217–216 BCSecond Punic War, defeats of the Lake Trasimene and Cannae.23216–215 BCSecond Punic War.24215–213 BCSecond Punic War, First Macedonian War.25213–212 BCSecond Punic War, fall of Syracuse.26211–210 BCSecond Punic War, First Macedonian War. Source for The Continence of Scipio.27210–207 BCSecond Punic War, First Macedonian War.28207–205 BCSecond Punic War, First Macedonian War.29205–204 BCSecond Punic War, revolt of Indibilis and Mandonius.30203–201 BCSecond Punic War, Battle of Zama.31201–199 BCSecond Macedonian War.32198–197 BCSecond Macedonian War.33197–195 BCSecond Macedonian War, Battle of Cynoscephalae.34195–194 BCLex Oppia repealed, victory of Cato in Hispania, War against Nabis, triumphs of Cato and Flamininus.35193–192 BCCampaign against the Ligurians, discussion between Scipio Africanus and Hannibal, affairs of Greece, talks with Antiochus III, who then invades Greece.36191 BCRoman Seleucid War, Battle of Thermopylae.37190–188 BCRoman Seleucid War.38188 BCOperations in Greece, campaign against the Galatians, Treaty of Apamea, trial and exile of Scipio Africanus.39187–181 BCThe Bacchanalia, causes of the Third Macedonian War, deaths of Scipio Africanus and Hannibal.40184–179 BCPerseus kills his brother Demetrius, and inherits the kingdom of Macedon. Campaign against the Ligurians.41179–174 BCCampaigns against the Ligurians, Histrians, Sardinians and Celtiberians; Perseus' activities in Greece.42173–171 BCThird Macedonian War.43171–169 BCThird Macedonian War.44169–168 BCThird Macedonian War, Battle of Pydna.45168–166 BCThird Macedonian War, capture of Perseus, Sixth Syrian War, triumph of Aemilius Paullus.46165–160 BCEumenes II's visit to Rome, campaigns in North Italy, embassies to Ptolemy VI and Ptolemy VIII, and Ariarathes V, death of Paullus Aemilius, the Pomptine Marshes are drained.47160–154 BCDivision of Egypt between Ptolemy VI and Ptolemy VIII, support of Ariarathes V against Demetrius I, campaigns against the Dalmatians and Ligurians. 48154–150 BCOrigin of the Third Punic War, death of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Second Celtiberian War, Lusitanian War.49149 BCThird Punic War, Lusitanian War, Fourth Macedonian War.50149–147 BCPrusias II of Bithynia is killed by his son Nicomedes II, death of Massinissa, Third Punic War, Scipio Aemilianus elected consul, Fourth Macedonian War.51147–146 BCThird Punic War, destruction of Carthage, Achaean War.52146–145 BCAchaean War, Lusitanian War, war between Alexander Balas and Demetrius II.53143 BCLusitanian War.54141–139 BCNumantine War, Lusitanian War, death of Viriathus. 55138–137 BCNumantine War, murder of Antiochus VI by Diodotus Tryphon.56136–134 BCNumantine War, First Servile War.57133 BCNumantine War, campaign of Scipio Aemilianus.58133 BCReforms of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, his death; First Servile War.59133–129 BCNumantine War, victory of Scipio Aemilianus; First Servile War, revolt of Eumenes III of Pergamon, war between Antiochus VII and Phraates II, crisis in Egypt, riots in Rome in the aftermath of Tiberius Gracchus' reforms.60126–123 BCReforms of Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, Quintus Caecilius Metellus' campaign in the Balearic Islands.61122–120 BCWar against the Gauls, victory of Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus against Bituitus, death of Gaius Gracchus.62118–117 BCAffairs of Numidia, with a civil war started by Jugurtha.63114–112 BCCampaigns against the Scordiscians in Thrace, beginning of the Cimbrian War.64112–110 BCJugurthine War.65109–107 BCJugurthine War, Cimbrian War.66106 BCJugurthine War.67105–104 BCCimbrian War, Marius' triumph and successive consulships.68103–100 BCCimbrian War.69100 BCReforms of Saturninus and Glaucia, their deaths.7097–91 BCCampaign against the Celtiberians, Ptolemy Apion bequeaths his kingdom, Sulla reinstates Ariobarzanes in his kingdom, reforms of Marcus Livius Drusus.7191 BCDrusus is murdered, Social War.7291 BCSocial War.7390 BCSocial War.7489–88 BCSocial War.7588 BCSocial War.7689–88 BCSocial War, Mithridates conquers Cappadocia and Bithynia.7788 BCSulla's march on Rome, First Mithridatic War.7888 BCFirst Mithridatic War.7987 BCBellum Octavianum.8087–86 BCCitizenship given to Italian allies, Bellum Octavianum, death of Marius.8187–86 BCFirst Mithridatic War, Sulla takes Athens.8286 BCFirst Mithridatic War, battles of Chaeronea and Orchomenus, Valerius Flaccus is murdered by Flavius Fimbria.8386–84 BCFirst Mithridatic War, Sulla's civil war.8484 BCSulla's civil war, death of Cinna.8583 BCSulla's civil war.8683–82 BCSulla's civil war, Second Mithridatic War.8782 BCSulla's civil war.8882 BCSulla's civil war, Battle of the Colline Gate, death of Marius the Younger.8982–81 BCSulla's civil war, death of Carbo, Sulla's proscription and reforms, Pompey's first triumph.9078 BCDeath of Sulla, uprising of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Sertorian War.9177 BCSertorian War.9276 BCSertorian War, campaign of Gaius Scribonius Curio against the Dardanians.9376–75 BCPublius Servilius conquers Isauria, Third Mithridatic War, Sertorian War.9474 BCThird Mithridatic War, Sertorian War.9574–73 BCWar of Gaius Scribonius Curio against the Dardanians, Third Servile War, Third Mithridatic War.9673–72 BCThird Servile War, Sertorian War.9771–70 BCThird Servile War, campaign of Marcus Antonius Creticus in Crete, Third Mithridatic War, Crassus and Pompey become consuls.9870–69 BCThird Mithridatic War, campaign of Quintus Caecillius Metellus in Crete.9968–67 BCThird Mithridatic War, Pompey's expedition against the Cilician pirates, campaign of Quintus Caecillius Metellus in Crete.10066 BCThird Mithridatic War, wars in Armenia.10166–65 BCThird Mithridatic War, Catilinarian conspiracy.10264–63 BCThird Mithridatic War, death of Mithridates, Pompey takes Jerusalem, Catilinarian conspiracy.10362–58 BCCatilinarian conspiracy, Publius Clodius Pulcher goes over to the plebeians, First Triumvirate, Gallic Wars.10458–56 BCGallic Wars, Cicero returns from exile.10556–54 BCCato's attempt to obstruct the Triumvirate, Gallic Wars, first Crossing of the Rhine.10654–53 BCGallic Wars, Battle of Carrhae, death of Crassus.10753–52 BCGallic Wars, murder of Clodius by Milo, Pompey elected sole consul, revolt of Vercingetorix.10852–50 BCGallic Wars, Battle of Alesia, victory of Gaius Cassius Longinus against the Parthians.10950–49 BCCaesar's Civil War, Crossing of the Rubicon.11049–48 BCCaesar's Civil War.11148 BCCaesar's Civil War (Battle of Pharsalus).11248 BCCaesar's Civil War.11347 BCCaesar's Civil War.11446 BCCaesar's Civil War.11546 BCCaesar's Civil War.11645–44 BCCaesar's Civil War, assassination of Caesar.11744 BCOctavian arrives in Italy, Antony disrupts the allotment of provinces, preparations for war on multiple sides.11844 BCBrutus takes the army of Publius Vatinius in Greece, Octavian builds an army, Antony besieges Modena.11944–43 BCPublius Cornelius Dolabella is declared enemy of the state, Battle of Mutina, Octavian becomes consul at 19.12043 BCSecond Triumvirate, proscriptions, death of Cicero.12143 BCCassius besieges Dolabella in Laodicea, who commits suicide; Brutus executes Gaius Antonius.12243 BCBrutus' campaign in Thrace.12342 BCSicilian revolt by Sextus Pompey, Liberators' Civil War.12442 BCBattle of Philippi.12541 BCPerusine War.12641–40 BCPerusine War.12740–39 BCPompeian–Parthian invasion, Pact of Misenum.12838–37 BCSicilian revolt, Antony's Parthian War, Siege of Jerusalem.12936 BCSicilian Revolt, Battle of Naulochus, Octavian defeats Lepidus.13036 BCAntony's Parthian War.13135–34 BCSextus Pompey is captured and executed by Antony, Octavian's campaigns in Illyria, Antony's conquest of Armenia, Donations of Alexandria.13234–31 BCAntony's Civil War: Battle of Actium.13330–28 BCAntony's Civil War: suicides of Antony and Cleopatra; conspiracy of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus Minor.13427 BCOctavian becomes Augustus, census in the three Gauls, campaign of Marcus Licinius Crassus against the Basterni and Moesians.13525 BCCampaigns of Marcus Crassus against the Thracians, and of Augustus in Hispania. 136Missing in the Periochae.137Missing in the Periochae.13815–12 BCTiberius and Drusus conquers Raetia, death of Agrippa, Drusus makes a census in Gaul.13912 BCDrusus' campaign in Germania, Imperial cult at Lugdunum.14011 BCConquest of Thracia, Drusus' campaign in Germania, death of Octavia.14110 BCDrusus' campaign in Germania.1429 BCDeath of Drusus.

Livy wrote in a mixture of annual chronology and narrative. This emerged from his decision to organise his narrative on a year by year scheme with regular announcements of elections of "consuls, prodigies, temple dedications, triumphs, and the like". This kind of year by year list of events is termed "annalistic history". Livy employed annalistic features to associate his history with the dominant traditional of Roman history, which was to write these annalistic chronicles; in so doing, he "imbued his history with an aura of continuity and stability" along with "pontifical authority". The first and third decades (see below) of Livy's work are written so well that Livy has become a sine qua non of curricula in Golden Age Latin. Some have argued that subsequently the quality of his writing began to decline, and that he becomes repetitious and wordy. Of the 91st book Barthold Georg Niebuhr says "repetitions are here so frequent in the small compass of four pages and the prolixity so great, that we should hardly believe it to belong to Livy " Niebuhr accounts for the decline by supposing "the writer has grown old and become loquacious ", going so far as to conjecture that the later books were lost because copyists refused to copy such low quality work. However, Livy also employed repetitive and formulaic wording in description of repetitive military affairs, described by Ogilvie as "mechanical and careless". Modern readers, however, view Livy's repetitive prose more positively at least in performance of prayers, blessings, and public religious rituals. A digression in Book 9, Sections 17–19, suggests that the Romans would have beaten Alexander the Great if he had lived longer and had turned west to attack the Romans, making this digression one of the oldest known written alternate history scenarios.

The first five books were published between 27 and 25 BC. The first date mentioned is the year Augustus received that eponymous title: twice in the first five books Livy uses it. For the second date, Livy lists the closings of the temple of Janus but omits that of 25 (it had not happened yet). Livy continued to work on the History for much of the rest of his life, publishing new material by popular demand. This explains why the work falls naturally into 12 packets, mainly groups of 10 books, or decades, sometimes of 5 books (pentads or ) and the rest without any packet order. The scheme of dividing it entirely into decades is a later innovation of copyists. The second pentad did not come out until 9 or after, some 16 years after the first pentad. In Book IX Livy states that the Cimminian Forest was more impassable than the German had been recently, referring to the Hercynian Forest (Black Forest) first opened by Drusus and Ahenobarbus.

There is no uniform system of classifying and naming manuscripts. Often the relationship of one manuscript (MS) to another remains unknown or changes as perceptions of the handwriting change. Livy's release of chapters by packet diachronically encouraged copyists to copy by decade. Each decade has its own conventions, which do not necessarily respect the conventions of any other decade. A family of MSS descend through copying from the same MSS (typically lost). MSS vary widely; to produce an emendation or a printed edition was and is a major task. Usually variant readings are given in footnotes.

The orthodox view is that "Livy was a very poor historian indeed, whether by ancient or modern standards". This is rooted in a few major reasons. He did "no primary research", relying "exclusively on earlier histories". His understanding of those sources was poor: with Livy relating the same event twice on multiple occasions. Moreover, "there are clear signs that his Greek was not good enough to understand properly one of his major sources, the Greek historian Polybius", which he followed closely for events in the east in books 31 to 45. Livy also did not intend to produce a history in terms of cataloguing and understanding the past, but rather, in terms of preserving a "memory [that] equips the reader with a sense of wrong and right as determined or exemplified by the actions of one's predecessors". Moreover, the work was also written "under the shadow of the new emperor" with the goal of supporting "the idea that the Augustan principate was the culmination of Roman history". While other sources have attempted to rehabilitate Livy's history in terms of its literary quality (for example, DS Levene's Livy on the Hannibalic War), this is not a defence of the history's historicity. Modern criticism of Livy also goes into the "inaccuracy of his battle accounts, the vagueness of his geography, the excessive partiality shown to one or [an]other of his 'heroes', and in general the highly rhetorical nature of not only his speeches but also of his dramatic narrations". However, judgement on Livy's whole work ought to be withheld insofar as only the first third of Ab urbe condita survives; the portions of Livy that survive, heavily relying on an uncritical repetition of earlier sources, may not be the same approach he took for later periods of the republic or his own time, where he would have needed "to do his own research using contemporary testimonies from eyewitnesses[,] the records of the senate and the assemblies[, and records of the] speeches of the great orators".

The details of Livy's History vary from the legendary and mythical stories at the beginning to detailed accounts of real events toward the end. Livy, in his preface on discussing the early history of Rome, noted the difficulties of interpreting or reconciling the sources in his own day:

So many chronological errors, magistrates appearing differently in different authors, suggest you cannot tell which consuls came after which or what belonged [to] any one year

It is not easy to prefer one thing over the other or one author over another. I think that the tradition has been contaminated since various families have fraudulently arrogated to themselves the repute of deeds and offices. As a result, both individuals' deeds and the public records of events have certainly been thrown into confusion. Nor is there any writer contemporary with those times who could serve as a reliable standard. Livy too recognised that the early years of Rome were profoundly ahistorical, saying "the traditions of what happened prior to the foundation of the city or whilst it was being built, are more fitted to adorn the creations of the poet than the authentic records of the historian". The first book has been one of the most significant sources of the various accounts of the traditional legend of Romulus and Remus. However, when comparing Livy's account of the kingdom to that of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, his scepticism is better evident, as he omitted "many stories which seemed rather improbable to him". And in general, the early parts of the books are important accounts of early Rome surviving from antiquity. But while Livy did recognise "the higher reliability of older contemporary authors compared to younger ones", he did little to ensure that his history was internally consistent or follow his own insights on unreliability regularly, preferring the story of his chosen choice without changes, "even if he afterward detected capital errors". Livy's treatment of his own sources was more in terms of arranging material and synthesising a narrative rather than engaging in original research into official documents; in doing so, he "did little more than [trying] to reconcile discrepancies in his sources by using arguments from probability". However, Livy did not substantially grapple with the possibility that annalists knew how to invent probable stories. Furthermore, rarely did Livy provide the names of his sources, especially in the long passages where he followed one major source with infrequent comparisons to other sources to correct errors. Fortunately, Livy's goal in telling existing narratives with "better style and arrangement" means he seemingly did not introduce into his history "invented episodes of exaggerations".

Livy's work "came at the end of a long line of historians conventionally known as the 'annalistic tradition'". Where he relied on these sources (along with other narrative sources available in his day) his principle was similar to that of Herodotus': "tell what he had been told". Roman historiography goes back to Quintus Fabius Pictor who wrote c. 200 BC, heavily influenced by Greek historiographical canons and methods. Other annalists included Quintus Ennius, Marcius Porcius Cato the censor, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi, Lucius Cassius Hemina, Gnaeus Gellius, Vennonius, Valerius Antias, Licinius Macer, Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius, and Quintus Aelius Tubero. The last three annalists (operating in the first century BC) are, however, "widely believed to have been less scrupulous than their second century predecessors", supplying stories about the archaic period "from their own imaginations". However, as to certain elements of his narrative, Livy may have relied on "unscrupulous annalists" who "did not hesitate to invent a series of face saving victories". Livy, did not use the libri lintei or the annales maximi kept by the pontifex maximus; nor did he "walk around in Rome, or elsewhere, to discover inscriptions or other new documents". The difficulties of using the senate's own archives, documented in speeches by Cicero, "hint at the possibilities of falsifying evidence" and the poor transmission of authoritative historical records.

Niccolò Machiavelli's work on republics, Discourses on Livy, is presented as a commentary on the History of Rome.

The first complete rendering of Ab urbe condita into English was Philemon Holland's translation published in 1600. According to Considine, "it was a work of great importance, presented in a grand folio volume of 1,458 pages, and dedicated to [Queen Elizabeth I]". A notable translation of Livy titled History of Rome was made by B. O. Foster in 1919 for the Loeb Classical Library. A partial translation by Aubrey de Sélincourt was printed in 1960–1965 for Penguin Classics. The version of Livy available on Wikisource is that from the 1905 translation of Reverend Canon Roberts for Everyman's Library.