Ақпаратты өңдеу теориясы: Когнитивті дамуға қатысты тәсіл

Approach to the study of cognitive development

Information processing theory is the approach to the study of cognitive development evolved out of the American experimental tradition in psychology. Developmental psychologists who adopt the information processing perspective account for mental development in terms of maturational changes in basic components of a child's mind. The theory is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli. This perspective uses an analogy to consider how the mind works like a computer. In this way, the mind functions like a biological computer responsible for analyzing information from the environment. According to the standard information processing model for mental development, the mind's machinery includes attention mechanisms for bringing information in, working memory for actively manipulating information, and long term memory for passively holding information so that it can be used in the future. This theory addresses how as children grow, their brains likewise mature, leading to advances in their ability to process and respond to the information they received through their senses. The theory emphasizes a continuous pattern of development, in contrast with cognitive developmental theorists such as Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development that thought development occurs in stages at a time.

The information processing theory simplified is comparing the human brain to a computer or basic processor. It is theorized that the brain works in a set sequence, as does a computer. The sequence goes as follows, "receives input, processes the information, and delivers an output". This theory suggests that we as humans will process information in a similar way. Like a computer receives input the mind will receive information through the senses. If the information is focused on, it will move to the short term memory. While in the short term memory or working memory, the mind is able to use the information to address its surroundings. The information is then encoded to the long term memory, where the information is then stored. The information can be retrieved when necessary using the central executive. The central executive can be understood as the conscious mind. The central executive can pull information from the long term memory back to the working memory for its use. As a computer processes information, this is how it is thought our minds are processing information. The output that a computer would deliver can be likened to the mind's output of information through behavior or action.

Though information processing can be compared to a computer, there is much more that needs to be explained. Information processing has several components. The major components are information stores, cognitive processes, and executive cognition. Information stores are the different places that information can be stored in the mind. Information is stored briefly in the sensory memory. This information is stored just long enough for us to move the information to the short term memory. George Armitage Miller discovered the short term memory can only hold 7 (plus or minus two) things at once. The information here is also stored for only 15–20 seconds. The information stored in the short term memory can be committed to the long term memory store. There is no limit to the information stored in the long term memory. The information stored here can stay for many years. Long term memory can be divided between semantic, episodic, and procedural memories. Lastly, procedural memory is made up of procedures or processes learned such as riding a bike. Each of these are subcategories of long term memory. Cognitive processes are the way humans transfer information among the different memory stores. Some prominent processes used in transferring information are coding, retrieval, and perception. Coding is the process of transferring information from the short to long term memory by relating the information of the long term memory to the item in the short term memory. This can be done through memorization techniques. Retrieval is used to bring information from the long term memory back to the short term memory. This can be achieved through many different recall techniques. Perception is the use of the information processed to interpret the environment. Another useful technique advised by George Miller is recoding. Recoding is the process of regrouping or organizing the information the mind is working with. A successful method of recoding is chunking. This is commonly used when trying to memorize a phone number. Executive cognition is the idea that someone is aware of the way they process information. They know their strengths and weaknesses. This concept is similar to metacognition. The conscious mind has control over the processes of the information processing theory.

Information processing as a model for human thinking and learning is part of the resurgence of cognitive perspectives of learning. The cognitive perspective asserts that complex mental states affect human learning and behavior that such mental states can be scientifically investigated. Computers, which process information, include internal states that affect processing. Computers, therefore, provided a model for possible human mental states that provided researchers with clues and direction for understanding human thinking and learning as information processing. Overall, information processing models helped reestablish mental processes—processes that cannot be directly observed—as a legitimate area of scientific research.

George Armitage Miller was one of the founders of the field of psychology known as cognition. He played a large role when it came to the information processing theory. He researched the capacity of the working memory, discovering that people can only hold up to 7 plus or minus 2 items. He also created the term chunking when explaining how to make the most of our short term memory. Two other theorists associated with the cognitive information processing theory are Richard C. Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin. In 1968 these two proposed a multi stage theory of memory. They explained that from the time information is received by the processing system, it goes through different stages to be fully stored. They broke this down to sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory (Atkinson). Later in 1974 Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch would contribute more to the information processing theory through their own discoveries. They deepened the understanding of memory through the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketch pad. Baddeley later updated his model with the episodic buffer.

The Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model was proposed in 1968 by Richard C. Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin. This model illustrates their theory of the human memory. These two theorists used this model to show that the human memory can be broken in to three sub sections: Sensory Memory, short term memory and long term memory.

The sensory memory is responsible for holding onto information that the mind receives through the senses such as auditory and visual information. For example, if someone were to hear a bird chirp, they know that it is a bird because that information is held in the brief sensory memory.

Short term memory lasts for about 30 seconds. Short term memory retains information that is needed for only a short period of time such as remembering a phone number that needs to be dialed.

The long term memory has an unlimited amount of space. In the long term memory, there can be memory stored in there from the beginning of our life time. The long term memory is tapped into when there is a need to recall an event that happened in an individual's previous experiences.

Baddeley and Hitch introduced the model of working memory in 1974. Through their research, they contributed more to help understand how the mind may process information. They added three elements that explain further cognitive processes. These elements are the central executive, phonological loop, and the visuo spatial working memory. Later Alan Baddeley added a fourth element to the working memory model called the episodic buffer. Together these ideas support the information processing theory and possibly explain how the mind processes information.

Working in connection with the central executive is the phonological loop. The phonological loop is used to hold auditory information. There are two sub components of the phonological loop; the phonological store and the articulatory rehearsal process. The phonological store holds auditory information for a short period. The articulatory rehearsal process keeps the information in the store for a longer period of time through rehearsal.

The visuospatial sketch pad is the other portion of the central executive. This is used to hold visual and spatial information. The visuospatial sketch pad is used to help the conscious imagine objects as well as maneuver through the physical environment. The nature mentality is around the idea that we are influenced by our genetics. This involves all of our physical characteristics and our personality. On the other hand, nurture revolves around the idea that we are influenced by the environment and our experiences. Some believe that we are the way we are due to how we were raised, in what type of environment we were raised in and our early childhood experiences. This theory views humans as actively inputting, retrieving, processing, and storing information. Context, social content, and social influences on processing are simply viewed as information. Nature provides the hardware of cognitive processing and Information Processing theory explains cognitive functioning based on that hardware. Individuals innately vary in some cognitive abilities, such a memory span, but human cognitive systems function similarly based on a set of memory stores that store information and control processes determine how information is processed. The “Nurture” component provides information input (stimuli) that is processed resulting in behavior and learning. Changes in the contents of the long term memory store (knowledge) are learning. Prior knowledge affects future processing and thus affects future behavior and learning.

Information processing theory combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative development. Qualitative development occurs through the emergence of new strategies for information storage and retrieval, developing representational abilities (such as the utilization of language to represent concepts), or obtaining problem solving rules (Miller, 2011). Increases in the knowledge base or the ability to remember more items in working memory are examples of quantitative changes, as well as increases in the strength of connected cognitive associations (Miller, 2011). The qualitative and quantitative components often interact together to develop new and more efficient strategies within the processing system.