Кіріспе
Бертран Расселдің 1938 жылғы кітабы "Power: A New Social Analysis" ("Қуат: Жаңа әлеуметтік талдау", 1-ші басылым. Лондон, 1938, Allen & Unwin, 328 б.) – Бертран Расселдің әлеуметтік философиядағы еңбегі. Рассел үшін күш – мақсатқа жету қабілеті. Расселдің назарында, әсіресе, әлеуметтік билік, яғни адамдарға билік ету мәселесі тұр. Кітапта көптеген аргументтер келтірілген. Дегенмен, жалпы жұмыста төрт тақырып басты рөл атқарады. Талдаудың алғашқы тақырыбы – билікке құмарлықтың адам табиғатының бір бөлігі екендігі. Екіншіден, еңбек әлеуметтік биліктің түрлі формалары бар екенін және олардың бір-бірімен тығыз байланыста екенін көрсетеді. Үшіншіден, "Power" ("Қуат") еңбегі "ұйымдар көбінесе белгілі бір адамдармен байланысты" деген тұжырымды ұсынады. Соңында, жұмыс "кәдімгі билікті бағындыруға болады және бағындыру керек" деген пікірмен аяқталады. Расселдің мақсаты – әлеуметтік ғылымдарды тұтастай жаңа тұрғыдан қарастыру әдістемесін жасау. Оның ойынша, әлеуметтік ғылымдардағы барлық тақырыптар – биліктің түрлі формаларын зерттеуден тұрады, оның ішінде экономикалық, әскери, мәдени және азаматтық формалар басты орын алады (Рассел 1938:4). Соңында ол әлеуметтік ғылымның "әлеуметтік динамика заңдарын" анықтауға жеткілікті деңгейге жететініне үміттенді, бұл заңдар биліктің бір формасы қалай және қашан басқа формаға ауысатынын сипаттайды (Рассел 1938:4–6). Жұмыстың қосымша мақсаты ретінде Рассел әлеуметтік биліктің бір себепті түсіндірмелерін, мысалы, Карл Марксқа жатқызылатын экономикалық детерминизмді қабылдамауға тырысады (Рассел 1938:4, 95).
other books
Power: A New Social Analysis by Bertrand Russell (1st imp. London 1938, Allen & Unwin, 328 pp.) is a work in social philosophy written by Bertrand Russell. Power, for Russell, is one's ability to achieve goals. In particular, Russell has in mind social power, that is, power over people. The volume contains a number of arguments. However, four themes have a central role in the overall work. The first theme given treatment in the analysis is that the lust for power is a part of human nature. Second, the work emphasises that there are different forms of social power, and that these forms are substantially interrelated. Third, Power insists that "organisations are usually connected with certain kinds of individuals". Finally, the work ends by arguing that "arbitrary rulership can and should be subdued". Throughout the work, Russell's ambition is to develop a new method of conceiving the social sciences as a whole. For him, all topics in the social sciences are merely examinations of the different forms of power – chiefly the economic, military, cultural, and civil forms (Russell 1938:4). Eventually, he hoped that social science would be robust enough to capture the "laws of social dynamics", which would describe how and when one form of power changes into another. (Russell 1938:4–6) As a secondary goal of the work, Russell is at pains to reject single cause accounts of social power, such as the economic determinism he attributes to Karl Marx. (Russell 1938:4, 95)
Мазмұны
Жаңа әлеуметтік талдау кем дегенде төрт негізгі тақырыпты зерттейді: биліктің мәні, биліктің формалары, ұйымдардың құрылысы және билік этикасы.
Биліктің сипаты
Расселлдің адам табиғатына деген көзқарасы, Томас Гоббс сияқты, біршама пессимистік. Расселлдің пікірінше, адамның өзін күшейтуге ұмтылуы – оның табиғатындағы ерекшелік. Ол, Homo sapiens-тен басқа ешқандай жануар өзінің жағдайына осы деңгейде қанағаттанбауын, қажеттіліктерін асырып тастайтын тауар жинауға тырысуын айтады. Ол "күшке құмарлық" деп атаған нәрсе, адамның негізгі қажеттіліктері қанағаттандырылмаса пайда болмайды. (Расселл 1938:3) Содан кейін қиял жетелеу арқылы, адамды одан да көп билікке ұмтылуға итермелейді. Расселлдің ойынша, билікті сүюге құштарлық адамдардың арасында кең таралған, бірақ әр адамда әртүрлі нысанда көрінеді. Бірі зор амбицияларымен келергі Цезарь бола алады, ал енді бірі үйінде ғана билік жүргізуге қанағаттанды. (Расселл 1938:9)
Осы күшке құмарлық тек басшыларда ғана емес, кейде оларға ілесіп жүретіндерде де "жасырын" түрде болады. Басшылар өздерінің жеке мақсаттарын іске асырып, одан пайда көруі анық, бірақ "шынайы ынтымақтастық жобасында" ізбасарлар көшбасшының жетістіктерінен игілік көреді. (Расселл 1938:7–8)
Расселл бұл тұрғыда Фридрих Ницшенің "күштілер мен әлсіздердің моралі" туралы әйгілі аргументін тікелей жоққа шығарады. Рассел былай түсіндіреді:
"Көптеген адамдар өз тобын жеңіске жеткізуге қажетті біліктілікке ие емес екенін сезінеді, сондықтан олар батылдығы мен сабырлылығымен көзге түсетін басшыны іздейді. Ницше христиан дінін құлдардың моралін қадағалауда айыптады, бірақ соңғы жеңіс әрқашан мақсат болды. 'Жұмсақ мінезділер бақытты, себебі олар жерді мұраға алады.'" (Расселл 1938:9, автордың баса назары). Ол жасырын күштің болуы адамдардың ұзақ уақыт бойы әлеуметтік теңсіздікке төзімділік танытуына себеп болатынын түсіндіреді (Расселл 1938:8). Дегенмен, Расселл адам табиғатына жүгіну, билікке ұмтылушылардың ерекше жеке мінез-құлқын елемеуге әкеп соқпауы керектігін атап өтеді. Адлердің (1927) ізімен – және Ницшенің ойларын қайталап, ол адамдарды екі топқа бөледі: белгілі бір жағдайда билікке талап етушілер және билікке ұмтылмаушылар. Расселдің айтуынша, билікке құштарлықтың себебі Фрейдтік кешендер (мысалы, әкесіне деген наразылық, анасына деген құштарлық, Эрос пен Танатосқа (Махаббат пен Өлімге) ұмтылыс, барлық адамдық құштарлықтың негізін құрайтын күштер және т.б.) емес, ерекше және терең бойға сіңген өзіне сенімділіктен туындайтын құқықтылық сезімі. (Расселл 1938:11)
Билікке талап етуші адамның табысына ақыл-ой және әлеуметтік факторлар да ықпал етеді. Мысалы, билікке талап етушілер өздерінің қабілеттеріне және шешім қабылдауға сенімділігіне ие, ал оларға ілесіп жүретіндерде мұндай сенімділік көбінесе байқалмайды. (Расселл 1938:13) Шындығында, билікке талап етушілерде шынайы дағдылар болуы мүмкін, ал биліктің көзі олардың тектік немесе діни рөлінен туындауы мүмкін. (Расселл 1938:11)
"Мен қарақшылар басшыларының әкелерінен қорқып, қайғыға батқандарына күмәнданамын, немесе Наполеонның Аустерлицте Мадам Мэрден кек алғанын сезінген-сезінбегенін білмеймін. Аттиланың анасы туралы ештеңе білмеймін, бірақ ол кішкентай сүйіктісін баптап, кейіннен ол әлемді ашуландырды, себебі ол кейде оның қалауларына қарсы тұрады деп күдіктенемін." Бертранд Расселл (1938:11)
Билікке мойынсұнбайтын адамдарға басшыға мойынсұнушылар және жағдайдан мүлдем бас тартушылар жатады. Өзін сенімді және құзыретті басшылыққа үміткер санаған адам, белгілі бір билікке қарсы тұруға батылы болмағанда, мінезі бойынша қорқақ болса, әдеттегі әдістермен билікті иемденуге мүмкіндігі болмаса, билік мәселелеріне мүлдем бей-жай болса және/немесе жақсы дамыған міндет сезімімен шектелген жағдайда жағдайдан бас тарта алады. (Расселл 1938:13–17)
Осыған сәйкес, билікке талап етуші шешен жанашырлық танытатын көпшіліктің орнына құмарлық танытатын көпшілікті артық көреді, ал қорқақ шешен (немесе тыңдаушы) керісінше артықшылық береді. Билікке талап етуші шешен көбінесе ойлауға қарағанда, шапшаң сезімге бейім көпшілікке қызығушылық танытады. (Расселл 1938:18) Шешен өз тыңдаушыларында екі "қабатты" сенімді қалыптастыруға тырысады: "Жоғары қабат, онда жаудың күші үлкен батылдықты қажет етеді, ал терең қабат, онда жеңіске деген берік сенім бар" (Расселл 1938:18). Ал қорқақтар өздерінің бір топқа жататындығын сезінуді және "барлығы бірдей сезінетін көпшіліктің бір бөлігі болудан келетін сенімділікті" (Расселл 1938:17) іздейді. Кез келген адам өзіне деген сенімділік дағдарысына тап болғанда және қорқынышты жағдайға тап болғанда, ол алдын ала болжауға болатын түрде әрекет етеді: біріншіден, ол ең маңызды тапсырманы орындауға қабілетті адамдардың билігіне мойынсұнады, ал екіншісі, өзін осындай сенімділік деңгейі төмен адамдардың көпшілігімен қоршап алады. Осылайша, адамдар белгілі бір жағдайда төтенше ынтымақтастықпен басшының билігіне мойынсұнады. (Расселл 1938:9–10)
Билік түрлері
Біріншіден, Расселл бір адамның екінші адамға билік етуінің әртүрлі жолдарын жіктеуге қызығушылық танытады, ол оны «билік түрлері» деп атайды. Бұл түрлерді екіге бөлуге болады: адамдарға ықпал ету және ықпал етудің психологиялық түрлері. (Расселл 1938:24,27)
Ұйымдардың қалай жұмыс істейтінін түсіну үшін, Расселл түсіндіргендей, алдымен олардың билікті қалай жүзеге асыра алатынын түсіну керек – яғни, жеке адамдарды қандай да бір билікке бағынуға қалай көндіруге болатынын түсінуіміз керек. Расселл ықпал ету түрлерін үш жалпы санатқа бөледі: «күш пен мәжбүрлеу билігі»; «ынталандыру билігі», мысалы, мінездік шарттану және топтық үйлесімділік; және «насихат және/немесе әдет билігі» (Расселл 1938:24). Әрбір түрді түсіндіру үшін Расселл мысалдар келтіреді. Таза күш – шошқаның құрсағына арқан байлап, оны кемеге көтеріп, оның айқай-шуына назар аудармаумен салыстырылады. Ынталандыру билігі екі нәрсемен салыстырылады: цирктегі жануарлар сияқты, олар көрермендер үшін осы немесе сол трюктарды орындауға үйретілген, немесе топтық келісім, мысалы, қойлар арасындағы жетекшіні тізбекпен сүйреп, қалған қораны одан іздеуге мәжбүрлеу. Соңында, насихат билігі – есектің мінез-құлқына әсер ету үшін жем мен қамшыны қолданумен ұқсас, есекті белгілі бір әрекеттер жасаудың (жемді ұстау, қамшыдан қашу) олардың пайдасына көбірек немесе аздау болатынына сендіру. (Расселл 1938:24)
Расселл психологиялық ықпалдың дәстүрлі, революциялық және ашық түрлерін ажыратады. (Расселл 1938:27) Бұл психологиялық типтер кейбір жағынан ықпал ету түрлерімен сәйкес келеді: мысалы, «ашық билік» тек мәжбүрлеуге дейін тоғытылуы мүмкін. (Расселл 1938:63) Бірақ басқа типтер – талдаудың жеке бірліктері болып табылады және жеке қарастыруды қажет етеді.
Жалаңаш және экономикалық күш
Басқа формалар болмаған кезде күш қолданылса, ол "жалаңаш күш" деп аталады. Басқаша айтқанда, жалаңаш билік – бұл келісімге ұмтылмастан, немесе оған талпынбастан, қатыгез күш қолдану. Барлық жағдайларда жалаңаш биліктің көзі – биліксіздердің қорқынышы мен күштілердің мақсаттары (Рассел 1938:127). Мысал ретінде, Рассел Сиракузаның тиранына айналған тоқыра жасаушының ұлы Агатокл туралы әңгімені еске алады (Рассел 1938:69–72).
Расселдің пікірінше, жалаңаш билік үкімет ішінде белгілі бір әлеуметтік жағдайларда туындайды: екі немесе одан көп фанатикалық сенімдер басқару үшін таласқанда және барлық дәстүрлі сенімдер жойылғанда. Жалаңаш билік кезеңі шетелдік жаулап алу, тұрақтандыру және/немесе жаңа діннің пайда болуы арқылы аяқталуы мүмкін (Рассел 1938:74). Ұйымның жалаңаш билікті жүзеге асыруға жеткілікті деңгейде көзге түсу процесін үш кезеңнің қағидасы деп сипаттауға болады (Рассел 1938:63). Осы қағидаға сәйкес, кейбір топтардың фанатизмінен басталатын нәрсе ақырында жалаңаш күш арқылы жеңіске жетеді. Соңында, шеткердегі халықтың мойындауы жалаңаш билікті дәстүрлі билікке айналдырады. Дәстүрлі билік орныққаннан кейін, ол наразылық білдірушілерді күш қолдану арқылы басып тастайды. Рассел үшін экономикалық күш – шарттау күшіне параллель (Рассел 1938:25). Алайда, Маркстен айырмашылығы, ол экономикалық күш бірінші кезекте емес, керісінше, билік түрлерінің үйлесімінен туындайды деп атап көрсетеді. Оның пікірінше, экономика негізінен заңның, әсіресе меншік құқығының жұмыс істеуіне байланысты; ал заң көп жағдайда жалақымен, еңбекпен және саудамен толық түсіндірілмейтін пікірге билік етудің функциясы болып табылады (Рассел 1938:95).
Нәтижесінде, Рассел экономикалық күшке өзінің аумағын қорғауға (және басқа жерлерді жаулап алуға), өзінің ресурстарын өсіруге қажетті материалдарға ие болуға және нарықта басқалардың сұранысын қанағаттандыруға қабілеттілігі арқылы қол жеткізілетінін айтады (Рассел 1938:97–101, 107).
(Және одан да көп) пікірдің күші
Расселдің үлгісінде адамдардың наным-сенімдері мен әдеттеріне әсер ететін күшті қате есептеу оңай. Оның айтуынша, бір жағынан, экономикалық детерминистер пікірдің күшін бағаламаған. Алайда, екінші жағынан, ол барлық билік пікірге билік ету деп айту оңай деп санайды: өйткені "Әскерлер олар соғысып жатқан себепке сенбесе, пайдасыз, егер ол жалпыға бірдей құрметтелмесе, заң күшсіз". (Рассел 1938:109) Дегенмен ол әскери күш пікірді тудыруы мүмкін екенін және (бірнеше ерекше жағдайларды қоспағанда) пікірді билікпен толтыратын нәрсе бола алатынын мойындайды: "Осылайша, бізде бір түрлі тартыс бар: алдымен, таза сендіру арқылы азшылықтың көнуіне жеткізіледі; содан кейін қоғамның қалған бөлігі дұрыс үгіт-насихатқа ұшырауы үшін күш қолданылады; және ақырында көпшіліктің шынайы сенімі, бұл күш қолдануды қайтадан қажетсіз етеді". (Рассел 1938:110) "Сендіру бір нәрсе, ал күш – басқа нәрсе деген тұжырым мүлдем дұрыс емес. Көптеген сендіру түрлері – тіпті бәрі мақұлдағандары да – шын мәнінде күштің бір түрі. Балаларымызға не істеп жатқанымызды қарастырайық. Біз оларға: 'Кейбіреулер жерді дөңгелек деп ойлайды, ал басқалары жалпақ деп ойлайды; ересек болған соң, дәлелдерді зерттеп, өз қорытындыларыңызды жасай аласыздар' демейміз. Оның орнына: 'Жер дөңгелек' дейміз. Балаларымыз дәлелдерді зерттейтін жасқа жеткенде, біздің үгіт-насихатымыз олардың санасын жауып тастайды". (Бертран Рассел, 1938:221) Осылайша, "пікірге билік" күшпен немесе күшсіз пайда болуы мүмкін болса да, сенімнің күші тек қана күшті және сенуші азшылық өз еркімен сенімді қабылдағаннан кейін пайда болады. Бұл жерде ерекше жағдай – Батыс ғылымы, ол көрінеді, орнату күштеріне қарсы болса да, мәдени жағынан танымал болды. Рассел ғылымның танымалдылығы ақыл-ойына жалпы құрметпен негізделмегенін, бірақ ғылым технологияны шығарады және технология адамдар қалаған нәрселерді шығарады дегенге негізделгенін түсіндіреді. Дін, жарнама және үгіт-насихат та осындай күш-қуатқа ие, өйткені олар өз аудиториясының қалауымен байланысты. Расселдің тұжырымдамасы бойынша, ақыл-сана адамдардың пікірлеріне өте шектеулі, бірақ нақты әсер етеді. Себебі ақыл тек қана құмарлыққа жүгінген кезде ғана тиімді. (Рассел 1938:111–112) Содан кейін Рассел ақыл-ойының қоғамға әсер етуі туралы сұрақ қояды, ол фанатизммен қарама-қарсы. Ақылдың күші, негізінен, техникалық тиімділік арқылы тәжірибелік мәселелерде табысты болу мүмкіндігін арттыру болып көрінеді. Ақыл-ойға негізделген зерттеуге жол берудің құны – интеллектуалды келіспеушілікке төзімділік, бұл өз кезегінде күмәнділікті туғызады және фанатизмнің күшін әлсіретеді. Керісінше, егер белгілі бір сенімдер бойынша кең таралған келісім болса, қоғамдық бірлік күшейеді және пікір таласы сирек кездеседі. Егер осы екі қарама-қарсы жағдайды қысқа мерзімді пайда үшін толыққанды пайдалану керек болса, онда екі нәрсе қажет: біріншіден, кейбір наным-сенімдер көпшілік пікірінде (күш пен үгіт-насихат арқылы) болуы керек, екіншісі – интеллектуалды элитаның көпшілігі келісуі керек (нақты талқылау арқылы). Алайда, ұзақ мерзімде сенімдер шаршау, сәл күмән, тікелей сенімсіздік және, ақырында, бейжайлық тудырады. (Рассел 1938:123–125) Рассел биліктің азшылықтың қолында жиналуға бейім екенін жақсы біледі, және пікірге билік етуде де осы қағида сақталады. Нәтижесінде "жоспарлы үгіт-насихат" немесе үгіт-насихатқа мемлекеттік монополия пайда болады. Күтпегендей, Рассел жүйелі үгіт-насихаттың салдары адам күткендей қауіпті емес екенін айтады. (Рассел 1938:114–115) Пікірге монополия жасау басшылардың абайсыз өркөкірегіне, биліктегілердің халқының әл-ауқатына немқұрайды қарауына және билікке деген сенімсіздікке әкеледі. Ұзақ мерзімді перспективада, таза нәтиже: "[революцияны кешіктіру, бірақ ол келгенде оны күшейту. Егер бір ғана ілім ресми түрде рұқсат етілсе, адамдар басқа да ойлау немесе бағалау дағдыларын пайдаланбайды; тек қана үлкен толқынға толы шабуыл ғана ортодоксалдылықтан құлатуы мүмкін; және оппозицияны жетістікке жету үшін жеткілікті түрде шын жүректен және зорлық-зомбылықпен қарсы алу үшін, тіпті үкіметтік догмадағы шындықты жоққа шығару қажет сияқты" (Рассел 1938:115). Ал қазіргі заманғы мемлекет ақылды үгітші келіспеушілікке жол береді, сондықтан жалған қалыптасқан пікірлерге жауап беруге болады. Расселдің сөздерімен айтқанда: "Өтірік өз күшін сақтап қалу үшін, олармен бәсекелесуі керек". (Рассел 1938:115)
"We thus have a kind of see saw: first, pure persuasion leading to the conversion of a minority; then force exerted to secure that the rest of the community shall be exposed to the right propaganda; and finally a genuine belief on the part of the great majority, which makes the use of force again unnecessary." (Russell 1938:110)
"It is not altogether true that persuasion is one thing and force is another. Many forms of persuasion—even many of which everybody approves are really a kind of force. Consider what we do to our children. We do not say to them: 'Some people think the earth is round, and others think it is flat; when you grow up, you can, if you like, examine the evidence and form your own conclusion.' Instead of this we say: 'The earth is round.' By the time our children are old enough to examine the evidence, our propaganda has closed their minds " Bertrand Russell (1938:221)
Thus, although "the power over opinion" may occur with or without force, the power of a creed arises only after a powerful and persuasive minority has willingly adopted the creed. The exception here is the case of Western science, which seemingly rose in cultural appeal despite being unpopular with establishment forces. Russell explains the popularity of science is not grounded on a general respect for reason, but rather is grounded entirely on the fact that science produces technology, and technology produces things that people desire. Similarly, religion, advertising, and propaganda all have power because of their connections with the desires of their audiences. Russell's conclusion is that reason has very limited, though specific, sway over the opinions of persons. For reason is only effective when it appeals to desire. (Russell 1938:111–112)
Russell then inquires into the power that reason has over a community, as contrasted with fanaticism. It would seem that the power of reason is that it is able to increase the odds of success in practical matters by way of technical efficiency. The cost of allowing for reasoned inquiry is the tolerance of intellectual disagreement, which in turn provokes scepticism and dims the power of fanaticism. Conversely, it would seem that a community is stronger and more cohesive if there is widespread agreement within it over certain creeds, and reasoned debate is rare. If these two opposing conditions are both to be fully exploited for short term gains, then it would demand two things: first, that some creed be held both by the majority opinion (through force and propaganda), and second, that the majority of intellectual class concurs (through reasoned discussion). In the long term, however, creeds tend to provoke weariness, light scepticism, outright disbelief, and finally, apathy. (Russell 1938:123–125)
Russell is acutely aware that power tends to coalesce in the hands of a minority, and no less so when it comes to power over opinion. The result is "systematic propaganda", or the monopoly over propaganda by the state. Perhaps surprisingly, Russell avers that the consequences of systematic propaganda are not as dire as one might expect. (Russell 1938:114–115) A true monopoly over opinion leads to careless arrogance among leaders, as well as to indifference to the well being of the governed, and a lack of credulity on behalf of the governed towards the state. In the long term, the net result is:
"[to] delay revolution, but to make it more violent when it comes. When only one doctrine is officially allowed, men get no practice in thinking or in weighing alternatives; only a great wave of passionate revolt can dethrone orthodoxy; and in order to make the opposition sufficiently whole hearted and violent to achieve success, it will seem necessary to deny even what was true in governmental dogma" (Russell 1938:115). By contrast, the shrewd propagandist of the contemporary state will allow for disagreement, so that false established opinions will have something to react to. In Russell's words: "Lies need competition if they are to retain their vigour." (Russell 1938:115)
Революциялық және дәстүрлі билік
Психологиялық ықпал түрлерінің арасында «дәстүрлі, ашық және революциялық күш» аражігін ажыратамыз. (Жылаңаш билік, бұрын айтқанымыздай, заңдылыққа ұмтылмастан, мәжбүрлеуді қолдану.) Расселл «дәстүрлі күш» дегенмен адамдардың саяси режимді әдет-ғұрыпқа сүйеніп ақтауын меңзейді. Осы тұрғыдан алғанда, дәстүрлі билік психологиялық, тарихи емес, себебі дәстүрлі билік толығымен нақты бір сызықты тарихи сенімге емес, қарапайым әдетке негізделген. Сонымен қатар, дәстүрлі билік міндетті түрде нақты тарихқа емес, көбінесе қиялдағы немесе жасалған тарихқа негізделуі мүмкін. Ол былай деп жазады: «Діни және секулярлық жаңашылдар – әсіресе, ұзақ сақталған жетістікке жеткендер – мүмкіндігінше дәстүрге жүгінеді және өз жүйелеріндегі жаңалық элементтерін азайтуға бар күштерін жұмсайды» (Рассел 1938:40). Дәстүрлі биліктің ең айқын екі мысалы – «патшалық билік» және «рухани билік». Расселл екеуін де ерте қоғамдарда белгілі бір функция атқарған рөлдерге тарихи тұрғыдан байланыстырады. Рухани тұлға – бұл рудың сиқыршысына ұқсас, оның қарғыс айту мен емдеудің ерекше күштері бар деп есептеледі (Рассел 1938:36). Көптеген қазіргі кездегі жағдайларда, дін қызметкерлері харизматикалық билікке негізделген діни әлеуметтік қозғалыстарға сүйенеді, олар иконалық негіздері жоқ діндерге қарағанда билікті басып алуда тиімдірек (Рассел 1938:39–40). Патшаның тарихын зерттеу қиын, зерттеуші оның шығу тегі туралы тек болжамдар жасауға болады. Бірақ, ең болмағанда, патшалық билік соғыс арқылы нығайтылатын сияқты, тіпті соғыс патшаның бастапқы функциясы болмаса да (Рассел 1938:56). Дәстүрлі билік формаларының аяқталуымен бірге, сенімдерде де сәйкес өзгерістер болады. Егер дәстүрлі сенімдерге ешқандай баламасыз күмән туса, онда дәстүрлі билік жалаңаш билікті қолдануға көбірек сүйенеді. Ал дәстүрлі сенімдер толығымен баламалы сенімдермен ауыстырылса, дәстүрлі билік революциялық билікке жол береді (Рассел 1938:82). «Революциялық билік» дәстүрлі биліктен ерекшеленеді, себебі ол тек халықтың ықыласына немесе әдет-ғұрыптарына емес, белгілі бір сенімге халықтың келісімін іздейді. Осылайша, революционер үшін билік – мақсатқа жету құралы, ал мақсат – қандай да бір сенім. Оның ниеттеріне қарамастан, революционердің билігі уақыт өте келе қайтадан жалаңаш билікке айналуы немесе дәстүрлі билікке трансформациялануы мүмкін (Рассел 1938:82). Революционер кем дегенде екі ерекше мәселеге тап болады. Біріншіден, революциялық билік өзінің негізгі қайшылығына шешім табуға ұзақ уақыт бойы қол жеткізе алмаса, қайтадан жалаңаш билікке айналады. Кейде сенімнің бастапқы мақсаты ұмытылуға бейім, содан кейін қозғалыстың фанатиктері өз мақсаттарын өзгертіп, тек билікке ұмтылады (Рассел 1938:92). Екіншіден, революционер әрқашан контрреволюционерлердің қаупімен күресуі керек, сондықтан ол дилеммаға тап болады: революциялық билік анықтамасы бойынша бастапқы революцияның ақталғанын ойлауы керек, сондықтан ол «логикалық тұрғыдан алғанда, барлық келесі революциялар зұлым болуы керек деп айта алмайды» (Рассел 1938:87). Дәстүрлі билікке өту де мүмкін. Дәстүрлі биліктің екі түрі бар сияқты – діни және патшалық – революциялық биліктің де екі түрі бар, атап айтқанда, «сәулетші сарбаз» және «құдайлық жеңімпаз». Рассел Бенито Муссолини мен Наполеон Бонапартты сәулетші сарбаздар, ал Адольф Гитлер, Оливер Кромвелл және Владимир Ленинды құдайлық жеңімпаздар деп санайды (Рассел 1938:12). Дегенмен, дәстүрлі формалар революциялық формалармен тек толық емес, тіпті қарым-қатынасы жоқ болуы мүмкін.
The two clearest examples of traditional power are the cases of "kingly power" and "priestly power". Russell traces both back historically to certain roles which served some function in early societies. The priest is akin to the medicine man of a tribe, who is thought to have unique powers of cursing and healing at their disposal (Russell 1938:36). In most contemporary cases, priests rely on religious social movements grounded in charismatic authority, which have been more effective at usurping power than those religions that lack iconic founders (Russell 1938:39–40). The history of the king is more difficult to examine, and the researcher can only speculate on their origins. At the very least, the power of kingship seems to be advanced by war, even if warmaking was not the king's original function (Russell 1938:56). When the forms of traditional power come to an end, there tends to be a corresponding change in creeds. If the traditional creeds are doubted without any alternative, then the traditional authority relies more and more on the use of naked power. And where the traditional creeds are wholly replaced with alternative ones, traditional power gives rise to revolutionary power (Russell 1938:82). "Revolutionary power" contrasts with traditional power in that it appeals to popular assent to some creed, and not merely popular acquiescence or habit. Thus, for the revolutionary, power is a means to an end, and the end is some creed or other. Whatever its intentions, the power of the revolutionary tends to either devolve back into naked power over time, or else to transform into traditional power (Russell 1938:82). The revolutionary faces at least two special problems. First, the transformation back into naked power occurs when revolutionary power has been around for a long period without achieving a resolution to its key conflict. At some point, the original goal of the creed tends to be forgotten, and consequently, the fanatics of the movement change their goals and aspire toward mere domination (Russell 1938:92). Second, the revolutionary must always deal with the threat of counter revolutionaries, and is hence faced with a dilemma: because revolutionary power must by definition think that the original revolution was justified, it "cannot, logically, contend that all subsequent revolutions must be wicked" (Russell 1938:87). A transition into traditional power is also possible. Just as there are two kinds of traditional power – the priestly and the kingly – there are two kinds of revolutionary power, namely, the "soldier of fortune" and "the divine conqueror". Russell classes Benito Mussolini and Napoleon Bonaparte as soldiers of fortune, and Adolf Hitler, Oliver Cromwell, and Vladimir Lenin as divine conquerors (Russell 1938:12). Nonetheless, the traditional forms bear only an imperfect relationship, if any, to the revolutionary forms.
Ұйымдардың құрылымы
Оқырманды билік түрлерімен таныстырғаннан кейін, Расселл осы түрлерді таңдалған ұйымдарға қолданады. Ұйымдарды талқылаудың мақсаты – олар әлеуметтік биліктің ең көп кездесетін көздерінің бірі болып көрінеді. «Ұйым» дегенмен Расселл бірнеше іс-әрекеттерді ортақ атқаратын және ортақ мақсаттарға ұмтылатын адамдар тобын меңзейді, бұл билікті қайта бөлумен сипатталады (Расселл 1938:128). Ұйымдар мөлшері мен түрі жағынан әртүрлі, бірақ олардың барлығына ортақ – мүшелерінің саны арта келе билік теңсіздігінің ұлғаю тенденциясы. Ұйымдастырудың барлық түрлерін тізімдеу мүмкін емес, себебі мұндай тізім адамдардың топтасу себептерінің тізімімен бірдей болар еді. Дегенмен, Расселл тек бірнеше ұйымды қарастырады. Әскер мен полиция, экономикалық ұйымдар, білім беру ұйымдары, құқықтық ұйымдар, саяси партиялар және шіркеулер – барлығы қоғамдық құрылымдар ретінде танылған. (Расселл 1938:29–34,128,138,140)
Зерттеуші ұйымды байланыс, көлік, мөлшері және халыққа шаққандағы биліктің үлестірілуі арқылы да бағалауы мүмкін. (Расселл 1938:130,132,134) Байланыс және көлік құралдарының жақсаруы ірі ұйымдарды тұрақтандырып, кішірек ұйымдарды ыдыратуға бейім. Кез келген ұйымды бір ғана билік түріне тоғыту қиын. Мысалы, полиция мен әскер күш пен мәжбүрлеу құралдары екені сөзсіз, бірақ олардың физикалық күш-қуатына ие болғандықтан билігі бар деу жөнсіз. Керісінше, полиция кейбір азаматтар үшін заңды институттың құралы ретінде қарастырылады, ал ұйым өз билігіне деген құрметті сақтау үшін үгіт-насихат пен әдет-ғұрыпқа сүйенеді. Сол сияқты, экономикалық ұйымдар ақша түріндегі шартты пайдалану арқылы жұмыс істейді; бірақ экономиканың күші, барынша, құқық қорғау органдарының тиімді жұмыс істеуіне байланысты, ол бейбітшілік пен меншік құқықтарын реттеу арқылы сауда-саттықты мүмкін етеді. (Расселл 1938:25,95)
Расселлдің пікірінше, ұйымның жалпы әсері – адамдардың әл-ауқатын арттыру немесе ұйымның өзінің сақталуына көмектесу: «Көп жағдайда, үкіметтік өзін-өзі сақтаудан басқа, ұйымдардың әсері жеке бақыт пен әл-ауқатты арттыруға бағытталған». (Расселл 1938:170)
Билік этикасы
Әлеуметтік өмірдегі биліктің қатысты аспектілерін талдаған тарауларын аяқтағаннан кейін, Рассел назарын осы мәселелермен байланысты философиялық сұрақтарға аударады. Осы жаңа салаға көшкен ол, билікті жақсы көретіндердің күш-жігерін шектеу үшін не істеуге болатынын ойлайды. Жауаптарды мүмкін ұжымдық іс-қимылдарда немесе жеке міндеттерде табуға болады.
Оң және жеке адамгершілік
Адамдар арасында әйелдерді бағындыру, өркениеттің белгілі бір деңгейінде, жабайылар арасындағы бағындырудан гөрі әлдеқайда толық. Ал, осы мойынсұнуды мораль үнемі нығайтады. Бертран Рассел әйелдердің бағынуы туралы (1938:188–189)
Моральдың оң және жеке түрлері арасында ерекшелік бар. Оң мораль дәстүрлі билікпен байланысты және тар шеңберде ежелгі қағидаларды ұстанады; мысалы, неке заңдарының нормалары мен тыйымдары. Жеке адамгершілік революциялық күшпен және әркімнің өзінің ар-ожданымен келісумен байланысты. (Рассел 1938:186–206)
Үстем әлеуметтік жүйе халықтың қалыптасқан оң моральдық кодекстеріне әсер етеді. Егер балалық құрметке басымдық берілсе, мәдениетте қарттардың даналығына көбірек мән беріледі. (Рассел 1938:188–189) Монархияда мәдениетті монархиялық моральға сенуге итермелейді, қиялды қолдануға мәдени тыйымдар қойылады; екеуі де қарсылықты өзінен-өзі цензуралауға ынталандырып, әлеуметтік ынтымақты арттырады. (Рассел 1938:190–191) Діни билік, тіпті толық гүлденген кезде де, аса әсерлі емес. Өзінің шарықталу нүктесінде діни билік патша билігінен қарсылық көрмеуге және ар-ождан мораліне бағынбауға байланысты; тіпті сонда да ол кеңінен күмәнмен қабылдануы мүмкін. (Рассел 1938:192–193) Дегенмен, кейбір моральдық көзқарастардың билік элитасымен ешқандай байланысы жоқ сияқты: мысалы, ХХ ғасырдың басындағы гомосексуализмге қатысты көзқарас ешқандай биліктің табысына байланысты емес көрінеді. (Рассел 1938:194)
Рассел адамгершілікке оң моральдан өзге негіздер табуға болатынын ойлайды. Рассел оң моральді консерватизммен байланыстырады және оны бейбітшілік рухын басаңдататын және қақтығысты тоқтамайтын әрекет ету тәсілі деп түсінеді. (Рассел 1938:197) Ал жеке адамгершілік – оң адамгершіліктің түпкі көзі және ол көбірек зияткерлікке негізделген. (Рассел 1938:198–199) Алайда, жеке адамгершілік жеке адамдардың құштарлықтарымен тығыз байланысты, сондықтан егер ол адамгершілік мінез-құлықтың жалғыз бағдары болса, ол "анархистік бүлікшінің" әлеуметтік хаосына әкелуі мүмкін. (Рассел 1938:206)
Оң және жеке мораль арасындағы келісімді жақтаушылық жасай отырып, Рассел ең алдымен моральдық прогресс деген нәрсе бар екенін, және бұл прогресс революция арқылы жүзеге асуы мүмкін екенін атап өтеді. (Рассел 1938:199) Екіншіден, ол жеке адамгершіліктің белгілі бір түрі прогрестің бір түрі ме, жоқ па, соны тексеруге мүмкіндік беретін әдіс ұсынады:
"Адам өмір сүру салтын немесе әлеуметтік ұйымдастыру жолын көре алады, ол қазіргі әдіске қарағанда адамзаттың көбірек құштарлықтарын қанағаттандыра алады. Егер ол оны дұрыс түсініп, адамдарды өзінің реформасын қабылдауға көндіре алса, онда ол [қарсылыққа] ақталған болады." (Рассел 1938:206)
Билік философиясы
Жеке билікке қарсылық екі түрдi болуы мүмкiн: билікке деген құмарлықты қанағаттандыратын және билікке деген құмарлықты толығымен басуға тырысатын. Билік құмарлығынан құтылудың жолын іздегендердің кейбiреулерi тыныштық пен бейбітшілдікке жүгіндi. Мұндай көзқарастардың басты жақтаушыларының бiрi философ Лаоцзи болды. Расселдің пікірінше, мұндай көзқарастар дұрыс емес, себебi олар тек өздерiне мәжбүрлеушi күштi мойындамайды, бiрақ басқаларды өздерiнiң iсiне көндiруге мүдделі; ал көндiру – Рассел үшiн биліктiң бiр түрі. Одан әрi, ол биліктi сүйгеннiң өзi жақсы нәрсе болуы мүмкiн екенiн айтады. Мысалы, егер адам көршiлерiне қатысты белгiлi бiр мiндет сезiнсе, онда ол сол көршiлерiне көмектесу үшiн билікке қол жеткiзуге тырысуы мүмкiн (Рассел 1938:215–216). Қорыта айтқанда, кез келген саясаттың басты мақсаты биліктiң түрлерiн тыйым салу емес, керiсiнше, биліктi пайдаланудың белгiлi бiр түрлерiне бағытталуы керек (Рассел 1938:221). «Биліктi сүйгенiң адам табиғатының бiр бөлігі, бiрақ билік философиясы белгiлi бiр дәрежеде ақылдан тыс. Сыртқы әлемнiң бар екендiгiн тек ақылдан адасқан адам ғана жоққа шығара алады. Ақылдан адасқандардың ақтауы күмән тудырғанда зорлық-зомбылыққа бейiмделгендерi үшiн жабылады; ал ақылдан адаспағандарына күштi әскерлердi басқару берiледi және олар өздерiнiң қолдарынан келетiн барлық ақылға қонымды адамдарға өлім мен апат әкелуi мүмкiн». Бертран Рассел (1938:212). Басқа ойшылдар билікке ұмтылуды қадiрлi мiнез деп атап көрсеттi. Кейбiр философиялар биліктi сүйюге негiзделген, себебi философиялар белгiлi бiр мақсат немесе тiлекке жетуде бiрлiкке келудi бiлдiредi. Философия шындыққа ұмтылумен қатар, бақытқа, ізгiлiкке, құтқарылуға немесе, ақыр соңында, билікке ұмтылуы мүмкiн. Рассел биліктi сүйюге негiзделген деп айыптайтын философиялардың арасында: Иоганн Готлиб Фихтенiң солипсизмі сияқты идеализмнiң және антиреализмнiң барлық түрлерi; прагматизмнiң кейбiр түрлерi; Анри Бергсонның Шығармашылық эволюция туралы iлiмi; және Фридрих Ницшенiң еңбектерi (Рассел 1938:209–214). Расселдiң билікке деген көзқарасына сәйкес, билікке моральдық сенiмдiлiкпен ұмтылуға тиiс төрт жағдай бар. Бiрiншіден, ол мақсат ретiнде емес, мақсатқа жету құралы ретiнде ғана жасалуы керек; сонымен қатар, егер ол мақсат болса, онда ол адамның басқа мақсаттарына қарағанда салыстырмалы түрде төмен болуы керек. Екiншіден, басты мақсат – басқалардың қалауларын қанағаттандыру. Үшiншіден, мақсатты жүзеге асырудың құралдары аяусыз немесе зиянды болмауы керек, олар мақсаттың құндылығынан асып түседi; (мысалы) болашақ демократия үшiн балаларды газбен өлтіру (Рассел 1938:201). Төртiншіден, моральдық iлiмдер басқаларды манипуляциялау үшiн емес, шындық пен адалдыққа бағытталған болуы керек (Рассел 1938: 216–218). Осы көзқарастарды жүзеге асыру үшiн Рассел оқырманға мүмкiндiктердiң жетiспеуiнен туындайтын қатыгез мiнез-құлықтарды басуды кеңес бередi. Оқырманға оңай және бұзық жолдарға балама беретiн конструктивтi дағдыларды дамытуға көмектесу керек. Соңында, олар ынтымақтастық сезiмiн көтермелеуi және бәсекелес тiлектердi тежеуi керек (Рассел 1938: 219–220, 222).
Other thinkers have emphasised the pursuit of power as a virtue. Some philosophies are rooted in the love of power because philosophies tend to be coherent unification in the pursuit of some goal or desire. Just as a philosophy may strive for truth, it may also strive for happiness, virtue, salvation, or, finally, power. Among those philosophies which Russell condemns as rooted in love of power: all forms of idealism and anti realism, such as Johann Gottlieb Fichte's solipsism; certain forms of Pragmatism; Henri Bergson's doctrine of Creative evolution; and the works of Friedrich Nietzsche (Russell 1938:209–214). According to Russell's outlook on power, there are four conditions under which power ought to be pursued with moral conviction. First, it must be pursued only as a means to some end, and not as an end in itself; moreover, if it is an end in itself, then it must be of comparatively lower value than one's other goals. Second, the ultimate goal must be to help satisfy the desires of others. Third, the means by which one pursues one's goal must not be egregious or malign, such that they outweigh the value of the end; as (for instance) the gassing of children for the sake of future democracy (Russell 1938:201). Fourth, moral doctrines should aim toward truth and honesty, not the manipulation of others (Russell 1938: 216–218). To enact these views, Russell advises the reader to discourage cruel temperaments which arise out of a lack of opportunities. Moreover, the reader should encourage the growth of constructive skills, which provide the person with an alternative to easier and more destructive alternatives. Finally, they should encourage cooperative feeling, and curb competitive desires (Russell 1938: 219–220, 222).
Өз бетімен басқаруды қолға алу
Расселл ұжымдық этикалық іс-қимылді талап ететін мәселелердің арасында «саяси билік», «экономикалық бәсекелестік», «пропагандалық бәсекелестік» және «психологиялық өмір» деп атайды. Осы ұжымдық мінез-құлықтың әр саласында оң өзгерістер жасау үшін Расселл билікті көбірек таратып, төмендету керек деп сенді. Расселлдің айтуынша, саяси биліктің қасақаналығын бағындыру үшін қоғамның мақсаты демократияны ынталандыру болуы керек. Расселл барлық жақсарту реформаларының бастауы демократияны ереже ретінде қабылдау керек деп санайды. Тіпті олигархияларға көрсетілетін құрмет – мысалы, жақсы ниетті диктаторларды қолдау – фантазия деп есептелуі керек. (Рассел 1938:226)
Moreover, democracy must be infused with a respect for the autonomy of persons, so that the political body does not collapse into the tyranny of the majority. To prevent this result, people must have a well developed sense of separation between acquiescence to the collective will, and respect for the discretion of the individual. (Russell 1938:227)
Collective action should be restricted to two domains. First, it should be used to treat problems that are primarily "geographical", which include issues of sanitation, transportation, electricity, and external threats. Second, it ought to be used when a kind of individual freedom poses a major threat to public order; for instance, speech that incites the breaking of law (Russell 1938:227–228). The exception to this rule is when there is a minority which densely populates a certain well defined area, in which case, political devolution is preferable. In formulating his outlook on the preferable size of government, Russell encounters a dilemma. He notes that, the smaller the democracy, the more empowerment the citizen feels; yet the larger the democracy, the more the citizen's passions and interests are inflamed. In both situations, the result is voter fatigue. (Russell 1938:229) There are two possible solutions to this problem: to organise political life according to vocational interests, as with unionisation; or to organise it according to interest groups. (Russell 1938:229–230)
"In former days, men sold themselves to the Devil to acquire magical powers. Nowadays they acquire those powers from science, and find themselves compelled to become devils. There is no hope for the world unless power can be tamed, and brought into the service, not of this or that group of fanatical tyrants, but of the whole human race for science has made it inevitable that all must live or all must die." Bertrand Russell (1938:22)
A federal government is only sensible, for Russell, when it has limited but well defined powers. Russell advocates the creation of a world government made up of sovereign nation states (Russell 1938:197, 230–31). On his view, the function of a world government should only be to ensure the avoidance of war and the pursuit of peace (Russell 1938:230 31). On the world stage, democracy would be impossible, because of the negligible power any particular individual could have in comparison with the entire human race. One final suggestion for political policy reform is the notion that there ought to be a political balance in every branch of public service. Lack of balance in public institutions creates havens for reactionary forces, which in turn undermine democracy. Russell emphasises two conditions necessary for the achievement of balance. He advocates, first, the abolition of the legal standing of confessions as evidence, to remove the incentive for extraction of confession under torture by the police (Russell 1938:232). Second, the creation of dual branches of police to investigate particular crimes: one which presumes the innocence of the accused, the other presuming guilt (Russell 1938:233). Competition, for Russell, is a word that may have many uses. Although most often meant to refer to competition between companies, it may also be used to speak of competition between states, between ideologues, between classes, rivals, trusts, workers, etc. On this topic, Russell ultimately wishes to answer two questions: "First, in what kinds of cases is competition technically wasteful? Secondly, in what cases is it desirable on non technical grounds?" (Russell 1938:176). In asking these questions, he has two concerns directly in mind: economic competition, and the competition of propaganda. The question of whether or not economic competition is defensible requires an examination from two perspectives: the moral point of view and the technical point of view. From the view of the technician, certain goods and services can only be provided efficiently by a centralised authority. For Russell, it seems to be an economic fact that bigger organisations were capable of producing items at a certain standard, and best suited to fill needs that are geographical in nature, such as railways and water treatment. By contrast, smaller organisations (like businesses) are best suited to create products that are customised and local. (Russell 1938:176–177, 234)
From the view of the ethicist, competition between states is on the same moral plane as competition between modern businesses (Russell 1938:177). Indeed, by Russell's account, economic power and political power are both capable of devastation:
"In democratic countries, the most important private organisations are economic. Unlike secret societies, they are able to exercise their terrorism without illegality, since they do not threaten to kill their enemies, but only to starve them." (Russell 1938:147)
Since they are morally equivalent, perhaps it is not surprising that the cure for political injustices is identical to the cure for economic ones: namely, the institution of democracy in both economic and political spheres (Russell 1938:234). By 'economic democracy', Russell means a kind of democratic socialism, which at the very least involves the nationalisation of select industries (railways, water, television). In order for this to operate effectively, he argues that the social system must be such that power is distributed across a society of highly autonomous persons. (Russell 1938:238–240)
Russell is careful to indicate that his support for nationalisation rests on the assumption that it can be accomplished under the auspices of a robust democracy, and that it may be safeguarded against statist tyranny. If either condition fail, then nationalisation is undesirable. In delivering this warning, Russell emphasises the distinction between ownership and control. He points out that nationalisation – which would allow the citizens to collectively own an industry – would not guarantee any of them control over the industry. In the same way, shareholders own parts of companies, but the control of the company ultimately rests with the CEO (Russell 1938:235). Control over propaganda is another matter. When forming his argument here, Russell specifically targets the doctrines of John Stuart Mill. Russell argues that Mill's argument for the freedom of speech is too weak, so long as it is balanced against the harm principle; for any speech worth protecting for political reasons is likely to cause somebody harm. For example, the citizen ought to have the opportunity to impeach malicious governors, but that would surely harm the governor, at the very least (Russell 1938:179). Russell replaces Mill's analysis with an examination of the issue from four perspectives: the perspective of the governor, the citizen, the innovator, and the philosopher. The rational governor is always threatened by revolutionary activities, and can always be expected to ban speech which calls for assassination. Yet the governor would be advised to allow freedom of speech to prevent and diminish discontent among the subjects, and has no reason to suppress ideas which are unrelated to his governance, for instance the Copernican doctrine of heliocentrism. Relatedly, the citizen mainly understands free speech as an extension of the right to do peaceably that which could only otherwise be done through violence (Russell 1938:179–182). The innovator does not tend to care much about free speech, since they engage in innovation despite social resistance. Innovators may be separated into three categories: the hard millenarians, who believe in their doctrine to the exclusion of all others, and who only seek to protect the dissemination of their own creeds; the virtuous millenarians, who emphasise that revolutionary transitions must begin through rational persuasion and the guidance of sages, and so are supportive of free speech; and the progressives, who cannot foresee the direction of future progress, but recognise that the free exchange of ideas is a prerequisite to it. For the philosopher, free speech allows people to engage in rational doubt, and to grow in their prudential duties. (Russell 1938:182–185)
In any case, the citizen's right to dissent and to decide their governor is sacrosanct for Russell. He believes that a true public square could be operated by state run media outlets, like the BBC, which would be charged with the duty to provide a wide range of points of view on political matters. For certain other topics, like art and science, the fullest and freest competition between ideas must be guaranteed. (Russell 1938:185)
The final discussion in the work is concerned with Russell's views on education. (Russell 1938:242–251) Citizens of a healthy democracy must have two virtues, for Russell: the "sense of self reliance and confidence" necessary for autonomous action; and the humility required to "submit to the will of the majority" when it has spoken. (Russell 1938:244) The last chapter of Power: A New Social Analysis concentrates significantly on the question of how to inspire confidence in students, from an educator's point of view. Two major conditions are necessary. First, the citizen/student must be free from hatred, fear, and the impulse to submit. (Russell 1938:244–245) Economic opportunities will have some impact on the student's temperament in this regard, and so, economic reforms need to be made to create more opportunities. But reform to the education system is also necessary, in particular, to foster in the student a kindness, curiosity, and intellectual commitment to science. The common trait of students with the scientific mind is a sense of balance between dogmatism and scepticism. (Russell 1938:246)
Moreover, the student must have good instructors, who emphasise reason over rhetoric. Russell indicates that the critical mind is an essential feature of the healthy citizen of a democracy, since collective hysteria is one of the greatest threats to democracy (Russell 1938:248). To foster a critical mind, he suggests, the teacher ought to show the students the consequences of pursuing one's feelings over one's thoughts. For example, the teacher might allow students to choose a field trip between two different locations: one fantastic place which is given a dull overview, and a shabby place which is recommended by impressive advertisements. In teaching history, the teacher might examine a particular event from a multitude of different perspectives, and allow the students to use their critical faculties to make assessments of each. (Russell 1938:247) In all cases, the object would be to encourage self growth, a willingness to be "tentative in judgment", and "responsiveness to evidence". (Russell 1938:250)
The work ends with the following words: Fichte and the powerful men who have inherited his ideals, when they see children, think: 'Here is material that I can manipulate' All this, to any person with natural affection for the young, is horrible; just as we teach children to avoid being destroyed by motor cars if they can, so we should teach them to avoid being destroyed by cruel fanatics This is the task of a liberal education: to give a sense of the value of things other than domination, to help create wise citizens of a free community, and through the combination of citizenship with liberty in individual creativeness to enable men to give to human life that splendour which some few have shown that it can achieve (Russell 1938:251).
Сонымен қатар, демократия адамдардың дербестігіне құрметпен үйлесімді болуы керек, сонда саяси орган көпшіліктің тираниясына құлап кетпейді. Бұл нәтижені болдырмау үшін адамдарда ұжымдық ерікке мойынсұну мен жеке адамның қалауына құрмет көрсету арасындағы айырманы жақсы түсінуі керек. (Рассел 1938:227)
Moreover, democracy must be infused with a respect for the autonomy of persons, so that the political body does not collapse into the tyranny of the majority. To prevent this result, people must have a well developed sense of separation between acquiescence to the collective will, and respect for the discretion of the individual. (Russell 1938:227)
Collective action should be restricted to two domains. First, it should be used to treat problems that are primarily "geographical", which include issues of sanitation, transportation, electricity, and external threats. Second, it ought to be used when a kind of individual freedom poses a major threat to public order; for instance, speech that incites the breaking of law (Russell 1938:227–228). The exception to this rule is when there is a minority which densely populates a certain well defined area, in which case, political devolution is preferable. In formulating his outlook on the preferable size of government, Russell encounters a dilemma. He notes that, the smaller the democracy, the more empowerment the citizen feels; yet the larger the democracy, the more the citizen's passions and interests are inflamed. In both situations, the result is voter fatigue. (Russell 1938:229) There are two possible solutions to this problem: to organise political life according to vocational interests, as with unionisation; or to organise it according to interest groups. (Russell 1938:229–230)
"In former days, men sold themselves to the Devil to acquire magical powers. Nowadays they acquire those powers from science, and find themselves compelled to become devils. There is no hope for the world unless power can be tamed, and brought into the service, not of this or that group of fanatical tyrants, but of the whole human race for science has made it inevitable that all must live or all must die." Bertrand Russell (1938:22)
A federal government is only sensible, for Russell, when it has limited but well defined powers. Russell advocates the creation of a world government made up of sovereign nation states (Russell 1938:197, 230–31). On his view, the function of a world government should only be to ensure the avoidance of war and the pursuit of peace (Russell 1938:230 31). On the world stage, democracy would be impossible, because of the negligible power any particular individual could have in comparison with the entire human race. One final suggestion for political policy reform is the notion that there ought to be a political balance in every branch of public service. Lack of balance in public institutions creates havens for reactionary forces, which in turn undermine democracy. Russell emphasises two conditions necessary for the achievement of balance. He advocates, first, the abolition of the legal standing of confessions as evidence, to remove the incentive for extraction of confession under torture by the police (Russell 1938:232). Second, the creation of dual branches of police to investigate particular crimes: one which presumes the innocence of the accused, the other presuming guilt (Russell 1938:233). Competition, for Russell, is a word that may have many uses. Although most often meant to refer to competition between companies, it may also be used to speak of competition between states, between ideologues, between classes, rivals, trusts, workers, etc. On this topic, Russell ultimately wishes to answer two questions: "First, in what kinds of cases is competition technically wasteful? Secondly, in what cases is it desirable on non technical grounds?" (Russell 1938:176). In asking these questions, he has two concerns directly in mind: economic competition, and the competition of propaganda. The question of whether or not economic competition is defensible requires an examination from two perspectives: the moral point of view and the technical point of view. From the view of the technician, certain goods and services can only be provided efficiently by a centralised authority. For Russell, it seems to be an economic fact that bigger organisations were capable of producing items at a certain standard, and best suited to fill needs that are geographical in nature, such as railways and water treatment. By contrast, smaller organisations (like businesses) are best suited to create products that are customised and local. (Russell 1938:176–177, 234)
From the view of the ethicist, competition between states is on the same moral plane as competition between modern businesses (Russell 1938:177). Indeed, by Russell's account, economic power and political power are both capable of devastation:
"In democratic countries, the most important private organisations are economic. Unlike secret societies, they are able to exercise their terrorism without illegality, since they do not threaten to kill their enemies, but only to starve them." (Russell 1938:147)
Since they are morally equivalent, perhaps it is not surprising that the cure for political injustices is identical to the cure for economic ones: namely, the institution of democracy in both economic and political spheres (Russell 1938:234). By 'economic democracy', Russell means a kind of democratic socialism, which at the very least involves the nationalisation of select industries (railways, water, television). In order for this to operate effectively, he argues that the social system must be such that power is distributed across a society of highly autonomous persons. (Russell 1938:238–240)
Russell is careful to indicate that his support for nationalisation rests on the assumption that it can be accomplished under the auspices of a robust democracy, and that it may be safeguarded against statist tyranny. If either condition fail, then nationalisation is undesirable. In delivering this warning, Russell emphasises the distinction between ownership and control. He points out that nationalisation – which would allow the citizens to collectively own an industry – would not guarantee any of them control over the industry. In the same way, shareholders own parts of companies, but the control of the company ultimately rests with the CEO (Russell 1938:235). Control over propaganda is another matter. When forming his argument here, Russell specifically targets the doctrines of John Stuart Mill. Russell argues that Mill's argument for the freedom of speech is too weak, so long as it is balanced against the harm principle; for any speech worth protecting for political reasons is likely to cause somebody harm. For example, the citizen ought to have the opportunity to impeach malicious governors, but that would surely harm the governor, at the very least (Russell 1938:179). Russell replaces Mill's analysis with an examination of the issue from four perspectives: the perspective of the governor, the citizen, the innovator, and the philosopher. The rational governor is always threatened by revolutionary activities, and can always be expected to ban speech which calls for assassination. Yet the governor would be advised to allow freedom of speech to prevent and diminish discontent among the subjects, and has no reason to suppress ideas which are unrelated to his governance, for instance the Copernican doctrine of heliocentrism. Relatedly, the citizen mainly understands free speech as an extension of the right to do peaceably that which could only otherwise be done through violence (Russell 1938:179–182). The innovator does not tend to care much about free speech, since they engage in innovation despite social resistance. Innovators may be separated into three categories: the hard millenarians, who believe in their doctrine to the exclusion of all others, and who only seek to protect the dissemination of their own creeds; the virtuous millenarians, who emphasise that revolutionary transitions must begin through rational persuasion and the guidance of sages, and so are supportive of free speech; and the progressives, who cannot foresee the direction of future progress, but recognise that the free exchange of ideas is a prerequisite to it. For the philosopher, free speech allows people to engage in rational doubt, and to grow in their prudential duties. (Russell 1938:182–185)
In any case, the citizen's right to dissent and to decide their governor is sacrosanct for Russell. He believes that a true public square could be operated by state run media outlets, like the BBC, which would be charged with the duty to provide a wide range of points of view on political matters. For certain other topics, like art and science, the fullest and freest competition between ideas must be guaranteed. (Russell 1938:185)
The final discussion in the work is concerned with Russell's views on education. (Russell 1938:242–251) Citizens of a healthy democracy must have two virtues, for Russell: the "sense of self reliance and confidence" necessary for autonomous action; and the humility required to "submit to the will of the majority" when it has spoken. (Russell 1938:244) The last chapter of Power: A New Social Analysis concentrates significantly on the question of how to inspire confidence in students, from an educator's point of view. Two major conditions are necessary. First, the citizen/student must be free from hatred, fear, and the impulse to submit. (Russell 1938:244–245) Economic opportunities will have some impact on the student's temperament in this regard, and so, economic reforms need to be made to create more opportunities. But reform to the education system is also necessary, in particular, to foster in the student a kindness, curiosity, and intellectual commitment to science. The common trait of students with the scientific mind is a sense of balance between dogmatism and scepticism. (Russell 1938:246)
Moreover, the student must have good instructors, who emphasise reason over rhetoric. Russell indicates that the critical mind is an essential feature of the healthy citizen of a democracy, since collective hysteria is one of the greatest threats to democracy (Russell 1938:248). To foster a critical mind, he suggests, the teacher ought to show the students the consequences of pursuing one's feelings over one's thoughts. For example, the teacher might allow students to choose a field trip between two different locations: one fantastic place which is given a dull overview, and a shabby place which is recommended by impressive advertisements. In teaching history, the teacher might examine a particular event from a multitude of different perspectives, and allow the students to use their critical faculties to make assessments of each. (Russell 1938:247) In all cases, the object would be to encourage self growth, a willingness to be "tentative in judgment", and "responsiveness to evidence". (Russell 1938:250)
The work ends with the following words: Fichte and the powerful men who have inherited his ideals, when they see children, think: 'Here is material that I can manipulate' All this, to any person with natural affection for the young, is horrible; just as we teach children to avoid being destroyed by motor cars if they can, so we should teach them to avoid being destroyed by cruel fanatics This is the task of a liberal education: to give a sense of the value of things other than domination, to help create wise citizens of a free community, and through the combination of citizenship with liberty in individual creativeness to enable men to give to human life that splendour which some few have shown that it can achieve (Russell 1938:251).
Ұжымдық іс-қимыл екі саламен ғана шектелуі керек. Біріншіден, оны негізінен «географиялық» проблемаларды шешу үшін қолдану керек, оларға санитария, көлік, электр энергиясы және сыртқы қауіптер жатады. Екіншіден, жеке адамның еркіндігі қоғамдық тәртіпке үлкен қауіп төндірген жағдайда қолданылуы керек, мысалы, заң бұзуға шақыратын сөздер. (Рассел 1938:227–228) Бұл ереженің ерекшелігі – белгілі бір нақты аумақты тығыз мекендейтін азшылық болған жағдайда, онда саяси децентрализация артық. Рассел үкіметтің оптималды мөлшері туралы көзқарасын қалыптастырғанда, дилеммаға тап болады. Ол демократияның қаншалықты кішкентай болса, азаматтың өзін соғұрлым күшті сезінетінін, бірақ демократия қаншалықты үлкен болса, азаматтардың құштарлығы мен мүдделері де соғұрлым жанып кететінін атап өтеді. Екі жағдайда да сайлаушылардың шаршауы байқалады. (Рассел 1938:229) Бұл мәселені шешудің екі жолы бар: саяси өмірді кәсіптік мүдделерге сәйкес ұйымдастыру, мысалы, кәсіподақтар арқылы; немесе оны мүдделік топтарға сәйкес ұйымдастыру. (Рассел 1938:229–230)
Moreover, democracy must be infused with a respect for the autonomy of persons, so that the political body does not collapse into the tyranny of the majority. To prevent this result, people must have a well developed sense of separation between acquiescence to the collective will, and respect for the discretion of the individual. (Russell 1938:227)
Collective action should be restricted to two domains. First, it should be used to treat problems that are primarily "geographical", which include issues of sanitation, transportation, electricity, and external threats. Second, it ought to be used when a kind of individual freedom poses a major threat to public order; for instance, speech that incites the breaking of law (Russell 1938:227–228). The exception to this rule is when there is a minority which densely populates a certain well defined area, in which case, political devolution is preferable. In formulating his outlook on the preferable size of government, Russell encounters a dilemma. He notes that, the smaller the democracy, the more empowerment the citizen feels; yet the larger the democracy, the more the citizen's passions and interests are inflamed. In both situations, the result is voter fatigue. (Russell 1938:229) There are two possible solutions to this problem: to organise political life according to vocational interests, as with unionisation; or to organise it according to interest groups. (Russell 1938:229–230)
"In former days, men sold themselves to the Devil to acquire magical powers. Nowadays they acquire those powers from science, and find themselves compelled to become devils. There is no hope for the world unless power can be tamed, and brought into the service, not of this or that group of fanatical tyrants, but of the whole human race for science has made it inevitable that all must live or all must die." Bertrand Russell (1938:22)
A federal government is only sensible, for Russell, when it has limited but well defined powers. Russell advocates the creation of a world government made up of sovereign nation states (Russell 1938:197, 230–31). On his view, the function of a world government should only be to ensure the avoidance of war and the pursuit of peace (Russell 1938:230 31). On the world stage, democracy would be impossible, because of the negligible power any particular individual could have in comparison with the entire human race. One final suggestion for political policy reform is the notion that there ought to be a political balance in every branch of public service. Lack of balance in public institutions creates havens for reactionary forces, which in turn undermine democracy. Russell emphasises two conditions necessary for the achievement of balance. He advocates, first, the abolition of the legal standing of confessions as evidence, to remove the incentive for extraction of confession under torture by the police (Russell 1938:232). Second, the creation of dual branches of police to investigate particular crimes: one which presumes the innocence of the accused, the other presuming guilt (Russell 1938:233). Competition, for Russell, is a word that may have many uses. Although most often meant to refer to competition between companies, it may also be used to speak of competition between states, between ideologues, between classes, rivals, trusts, workers, etc. On this topic, Russell ultimately wishes to answer two questions: "First, in what kinds of cases is competition technically wasteful? Secondly, in what cases is it desirable on non technical grounds?" (Russell 1938:176). In asking these questions, he has two concerns directly in mind: economic competition, and the competition of propaganda. The question of whether or not economic competition is defensible requires an examination from two perspectives: the moral point of view and the technical point of view. From the view of the technician, certain goods and services can only be provided efficiently by a centralised authority. For Russell, it seems to be an economic fact that bigger organisations were capable of producing items at a certain standard, and best suited to fill needs that are geographical in nature, such as railways and water treatment. By contrast, smaller organisations (like businesses) are best suited to create products that are customised and local. (Russell 1938:176–177, 234)
From the view of the ethicist, competition between states is on the same moral plane as competition between modern businesses (Russell 1938:177). Indeed, by Russell's account, economic power and political power are both capable of devastation:
"In democratic countries, the most important private organisations are economic. Unlike secret societies, they are able to exercise their terrorism without illegality, since they do not threaten to kill their enemies, but only to starve them." (Russell 1938:147)
Since they are morally equivalent, perhaps it is not surprising that the cure for political injustices is identical to the cure for economic ones: namely, the institution of democracy in both economic and political spheres (Russell 1938:234). By 'economic democracy', Russell means a kind of democratic socialism, which at the very least involves the nationalisation of select industries (railways, water, television). In order for this to operate effectively, he argues that the social system must be such that power is distributed across a society of highly autonomous persons. (Russell 1938:238–240)
Russell is careful to indicate that his support for nationalisation rests on the assumption that it can be accomplished under the auspices of a robust democracy, and that it may be safeguarded against statist tyranny. If either condition fail, then nationalisation is undesirable. In delivering this warning, Russell emphasises the distinction between ownership and control. He points out that nationalisation – which would allow the citizens to collectively own an industry – would not guarantee any of them control over the industry. In the same way, shareholders own parts of companies, but the control of the company ultimately rests with the CEO (Russell 1938:235). Control over propaganda is another matter. When forming his argument here, Russell specifically targets the doctrines of John Stuart Mill. Russell argues that Mill's argument for the freedom of speech is too weak, so long as it is balanced against the harm principle; for any speech worth protecting for political reasons is likely to cause somebody harm. For example, the citizen ought to have the opportunity to impeach malicious governors, but that would surely harm the governor, at the very least (Russell 1938:179). Russell replaces Mill's analysis with an examination of the issue from four perspectives: the perspective of the governor, the citizen, the innovator, and the philosopher. The rational governor is always threatened by revolutionary activities, and can always be expected to ban speech which calls for assassination. Yet the governor would be advised to allow freedom of speech to prevent and diminish discontent among the subjects, and has no reason to suppress ideas which are unrelated to his governance, for instance the Copernican doctrine of heliocentrism. Relatedly, the citizen mainly understands free speech as an extension of the right to do peaceably that which could only otherwise be done through violence (Russell 1938:179–182). The innovator does not tend to care much about free speech, since they engage in innovation despite social resistance. Innovators may be separated into three categories: the hard millenarians, who believe in their doctrine to the exclusion of all others, and who only seek to protect the dissemination of their own creeds; the virtuous millenarians, who emphasise that revolutionary transitions must begin through rational persuasion and the guidance of sages, and so are supportive of free speech; and the progressives, who cannot foresee the direction of future progress, but recognise that the free exchange of ideas is a prerequisite to it. For the philosopher, free speech allows people to engage in rational doubt, and to grow in their prudential duties. (Russell 1938:182–185)
In any case, the citizen's right to dissent and to decide their governor is sacrosanct for Russell. He believes that a true public square could be operated by state run media outlets, like the BBC, which would be charged with the duty to provide a wide range of points of view on political matters. For certain other topics, like art and science, the fullest and freest competition between ideas must be guaranteed. (Russell 1938:185)
The final discussion in the work is concerned with Russell's views on education. (Russell 1938:242–251) Citizens of a healthy democracy must have two virtues, for Russell: the "sense of self reliance and confidence" necessary for autonomous action; and the humility required to "submit to the will of the majority" when it has spoken. (Russell 1938:244) The last chapter of Power: A New Social Analysis concentrates significantly on the question of how to inspire confidence in students, from an educator's point of view. Two major conditions are necessary. First, the citizen/student must be free from hatred, fear, and the impulse to submit. (Russell 1938:244–245) Economic opportunities will have some impact on the student's temperament in this regard, and so, economic reforms need to be made to create more opportunities. But reform to the education system is also necessary, in particular, to foster in the student a kindness, curiosity, and intellectual commitment to science. The common trait of students with the scientific mind is a sense of balance between dogmatism and scepticism. (Russell 1938:246)
Moreover, the student must have good instructors, who emphasise reason over rhetoric. Russell indicates that the critical mind is an essential feature of the healthy citizen of a democracy, since collective hysteria is one of the greatest threats to democracy (Russell 1938:248). To foster a critical mind, he suggests, the teacher ought to show the students the consequences of pursuing one's feelings over one's thoughts. For example, the teacher might allow students to choose a field trip between two different locations: one fantastic place which is given a dull overview, and a shabby place which is recommended by impressive advertisements. In teaching history, the teacher might examine a particular event from a multitude of different perspectives, and allow the students to use their critical faculties to make assessments of each. (Russell 1938:247) In all cases, the object would be to encourage self growth, a willingness to be "tentative in judgment", and "responsiveness to evidence". (Russell 1938:250)
The work ends with the following words: Fichte and the powerful men who have inherited his ideals, when they see children, think: 'Here is material that I can manipulate' All this, to any person with natural affection for the young, is horrible; just as we teach children to avoid being destroyed by motor cars if they can, so we should teach them to avoid being destroyed by cruel fanatics This is the task of a liberal education: to give a sense of the value of things other than domination, to help create wise citizens of a free community, and through the combination of citizenship with liberty in individual creativeness to enable men to give to human life that splendour which some few have shown that it can achieve (Russell 1938:251).
«Бұрынғы күндерде адамдар сиқырлы күштерге ие болу үшін өздерін шайтанға сатқан. Бүгінде олар осы күштерді ғылымнан алады және өздерін шайтанға айналуға мәжбүр болады. Егер билікті бағындырып, оны осы немесе сол фанатикалық тирандардың емес, бүкіл адамзаттың қызметіне бермесек, әлемге үміт жоқ, өйткені ғылым барлығының өмір сүруі немесе барлығының өлуіне әкеп соқтыратынын анықтады». Бертран Рассел (1938:22)
Moreover, democracy must be infused with a respect for the autonomy of persons, so that the political body does not collapse into the tyranny of the majority. To prevent this result, people must have a well developed sense of separation between acquiescence to the collective will, and respect for the discretion of the individual. (Russell 1938:227)
Collective action should be restricted to two domains. First, it should be used to treat problems that are primarily "geographical", which include issues of sanitation, transportation, electricity, and external threats. Second, it ought to be used when a kind of individual freedom poses a major threat to public order; for instance, speech that incites the breaking of law (Russell 1938:227–228). The exception to this rule is when there is a minority which densely populates a certain well defined area, in which case, political devolution is preferable. In formulating his outlook on the preferable size of government, Russell encounters a dilemma. He notes that, the smaller the democracy, the more empowerment the citizen feels; yet the larger the democracy, the more the citizen's passions and interests are inflamed. In both situations, the result is voter fatigue. (Russell 1938:229) There are two possible solutions to this problem: to organise political life according to vocational interests, as with unionisation; or to organise it according to interest groups. (Russell 1938:229–230)
"In former days, men sold themselves to the Devil to acquire magical powers. Nowadays they acquire those powers from science, and find themselves compelled to become devils. There is no hope for the world unless power can be tamed, and brought into the service, not of this or that group of fanatical tyrants, but of the whole human race for science has made it inevitable that all must live or all must die." Bertrand Russell (1938:22)
A federal government is only sensible, for Russell, when it has limited but well defined powers. Russell advocates the creation of a world government made up of sovereign nation states (Russell 1938:197, 230–31). On his view, the function of a world government should only be to ensure the avoidance of war and the pursuit of peace (Russell 1938:230 31). On the world stage, democracy would be impossible, because of the negligible power any particular individual could have in comparison with the entire human race. One final suggestion for political policy reform is the notion that there ought to be a political balance in every branch of public service. Lack of balance in public institutions creates havens for reactionary forces, which in turn undermine democracy. Russell emphasises two conditions necessary for the achievement of balance. He advocates, first, the abolition of the legal standing of confessions as evidence, to remove the incentive for extraction of confession under torture by the police (Russell 1938:232). Second, the creation of dual branches of police to investigate particular crimes: one which presumes the innocence of the accused, the other presuming guilt (Russell 1938:233). Competition, for Russell, is a word that may have many uses. Although most often meant to refer to competition between companies, it may also be used to speak of competition between states, between ideologues, between classes, rivals, trusts, workers, etc. On this topic, Russell ultimately wishes to answer two questions: "First, in what kinds of cases is competition technically wasteful? Secondly, in what cases is it desirable on non technical grounds?" (Russell 1938:176). In asking these questions, he has two concerns directly in mind: economic competition, and the competition of propaganda. The question of whether or not economic competition is defensible requires an examination from two perspectives: the moral point of view and the technical point of view. From the view of the technician, certain goods and services can only be provided efficiently by a centralised authority. For Russell, it seems to be an economic fact that bigger organisations were capable of producing items at a certain standard, and best suited to fill needs that are geographical in nature, such as railways and water treatment. By contrast, smaller organisations (like businesses) are best suited to create products that are customised and local. (Russell 1938:176–177, 234)
From the view of the ethicist, competition between states is on the same moral plane as competition between modern businesses (Russell 1938:177). Indeed, by Russell's account, economic power and political power are both capable of devastation:
"In democratic countries, the most important private organisations are economic. Unlike secret societies, they are able to exercise their terrorism without illegality, since they do not threaten to kill their enemies, but only to starve them." (Russell 1938:147)
Since they are morally equivalent, perhaps it is not surprising that the cure for political injustices is identical to the cure for economic ones: namely, the institution of democracy in both economic and political spheres (Russell 1938:234). By 'economic democracy', Russell means a kind of democratic socialism, which at the very least involves the nationalisation of select industries (railways, water, television). In order for this to operate effectively, he argues that the social system must be such that power is distributed across a society of highly autonomous persons. (Russell 1938:238–240)
Russell is careful to indicate that his support for nationalisation rests on the assumption that it can be accomplished under the auspices of a robust democracy, and that it may be safeguarded against statist tyranny. If either condition fail, then nationalisation is undesirable. In delivering this warning, Russell emphasises the distinction between ownership and control. He points out that nationalisation – which would allow the citizens to collectively own an industry – would not guarantee any of them control over the industry. In the same way, shareholders own parts of companies, but the control of the company ultimately rests with the CEO (Russell 1938:235). Control over propaganda is another matter. When forming his argument here, Russell specifically targets the doctrines of John Stuart Mill. Russell argues that Mill's argument for the freedom of speech is too weak, so long as it is balanced against the harm principle; for any speech worth protecting for political reasons is likely to cause somebody harm. For example, the citizen ought to have the opportunity to impeach malicious governors, but that would surely harm the governor, at the very least (Russell 1938:179). Russell replaces Mill's analysis with an examination of the issue from four perspectives: the perspective of the governor, the citizen, the innovator, and the philosopher. The rational governor is always threatened by revolutionary activities, and can always be expected to ban speech which calls for assassination. Yet the governor would be advised to allow freedom of speech to prevent and diminish discontent among the subjects, and has no reason to suppress ideas which are unrelated to his governance, for instance the Copernican doctrine of heliocentrism. Relatedly, the citizen mainly understands free speech as an extension of the right to do peaceably that which could only otherwise be done through violence (Russell 1938:179–182). The innovator does not tend to care much about free speech, since they engage in innovation despite social resistance. Innovators may be separated into three categories: the hard millenarians, who believe in their doctrine to the exclusion of all others, and who only seek to protect the dissemination of their own creeds; the virtuous millenarians, who emphasise that revolutionary transitions must begin through rational persuasion and the guidance of sages, and so are supportive of free speech; and the progressives, who cannot foresee the direction of future progress, but recognise that the free exchange of ideas is a prerequisite to it. For the philosopher, free speech allows people to engage in rational doubt, and to grow in their prudential duties. (Russell 1938:182–185)
In any case, the citizen's right to dissent and to decide their governor is sacrosanct for Russell. He believes that a true public square could be operated by state run media outlets, like the BBC, which would be charged with the duty to provide a wide range of points of view on political matters. For certain other topics, like art and science, the fullest and freest competition between ideas must be guaranteed. (Russell 1938:185)
The final discussion in the work is concerned with Russell's views on education. (Russell 1938:242–251) Citizens of a healthy democracy must have two virtues, for Russell: the "sense of self reliance and confidence" necessary for autonomous action; and the humility required to "submit to the will of the majority" when it has spoken. (Russell 1938:244) The last chapter of Power: A New Social Analysis concentrates significantly on the question of how to inspire confidence in students, from an educator's point of view. Two major conditions are necessary. First, the citizen/student must be free from hatred, fear, and the impulse to submit. (Russell 1938:244–245) Economic opportunities will have some impact on the student's temperament in this regard, and so, economic reforms need to be made to create more opportunities. But reform to the education system is also necessary, in particular, to foster in the student a kindness, curiosity, and intellectual commitment to science. The common trait of students with the scientific mind is a sense of balance between dogmatism and scepticism. (Russell 1938:246)
Moreover, the student must have good instructors, who emphasise reason over rhetoric. Russell indicates that the critical mind is an essential feature of the healthy citizen of a democracy, since collective hysteria is one of the greatest threats to democracy (Russell 1938:248). To foster a critical mind, he suggests, the teacher ought to show the students the consequences of pursuing one's feelings over one's thoughts. For example, the teacher might allow students to choose a field trip between two different locations: one fantastic place which is given a dull overview, and a shabby place which is recommended by impressive advertisements. In teaching history, the teacher might examine a particular event from a multitude of different perspectives, and allow the students to use their critical faculties to make assessments of each. (Russell 1938:247) In all cases, the object would be to encourage self growth, a willingness to be "tentative in judgment", and "responsiveness to evidence". (Russell 1938:250)
The work ends with the following words: Fichte and the powerful men who have inherited his ideals, when they see children, think: 'Here is material that I can manipulate' All this, to any person with natural affection for the young, is horrible; just as we teach children to avoid being destroyed by motor cars if they can, so we should teach them to avoid being destroyed by cruel fanatics This is the task of a liberal education: to give a sense of the value of things other than domination, to help create wise citizens of a free community, and through the combination of citizenship with liberty in individual creativeness to enable men to give to human life that splendour which some few have shown that it can achieve (Russell 1938:251).
Расселдің пікірінше, федералды үкімет тек шектеулі, бірақ нақтыланған өкілеттіктерге ие болғанда ғана мағыналы. Рассел егеменді ұлттық мемлекеттерден тұратын әлемдік үкімет құруды жақтайды (Рассел 1938:197, 230–31). Оның пікірінше, әлемдік үкіметтің міндеті соғыстан аулақ болуды және бейбітшілікті қамтамасыз ету ғана болуы керек (Рассел 1938:230–31). Әлемдік деңгейде демократия мүмкін емес, өйткені әрбір жеке адамның бүкіл адамзатпен салыстырғанда билігі өте шағын. Саяси саясатты реформалаудың тағы бір ұсынысы – мемлекеттік қызметтің барлық салаларында саяси тепе-теңдік болуы керек деген ой. Мемлекеттік институттардың теңгерімсіздігі реакциялық күштерге баспана жасайды, бұл өз кезегінде демократияны әлсіретеді. Рассел тепе-теңдікке жету үшін екі шартты атап көрсетеді. Ол, біріншіден, полиция тарапынан азаптау арқылы мойындауды алуға ынталандыру үшін мойындаулардың дәлел ретінде заңды мәртебесін жоюды жақтайды (Рассел 1938:232). Екіншіден, белгілі бір қылмыстарды тергеу үшін полицияның екі бөлімін құру: біреуі айыпталушының кінәсіздігін, екіншісі кінәлі деп санайды (Рассел 1938:233). Рассел үшін бәсекелестік – мағынасы көп болатын сөз. Көбінесе компаниялар арасындағы бәсекелестікті білдірсе де, оны мемлекеттер арасындағы, идеологтар арасындағы, сыныптар арасындағы, бәсекелестер, трастар, жұмысшылар және т.б. арасындағы бәсекелестікті білдіру үшін де қолдануға болады. Осы тақырыпта Рассел екі сұраққа жауап бергісі келеді: «Біріншіден, қандай жағдайларда бәсекелестік техникалық тұрғыдан ысырапшылдық болып табылады? Екіншіден, қандай жағдайларда техникалық емес себептермен қажет?» (Рассел 1938:176). Осы сұрақтарды қойып, ол екі мәселе туралы ойлайды: экономикалық бәсеке және пропаганданың бәсекелестігі. Экономикалық бәсекелестікті қорғау мүмкін бе, жоқ па деген сұрақ екі көзқараспен қарастыруды қажет етеді: моральдық және техникалық. Техниктердің пікірінше, кейбір тауарлар мен қызметтерді орталықтандырылған билік ғана тиімді түрде қамтамасыз ете алады. Расселдің пікірінше, үлкен ұйымдар белгілі бір стандартта тауар өндіруге және географиялық сипаттағы қажеттіліктерді қанағаттандыруға қабілетті, мысалы, теміржол және су тазалау. Керісінше, кіші ұйымдар (мысалы, кәсіпорындар) жекеленген және жергілікті өнімдерді жасауға жақсырақ. (Рассел 1938:176–177, 234)
Moreover, democracy must be infused with a respect for the autonomy of persons, so that the political body does not collapse into the tyranny of the majority. To prevent this result, people must have a well developed sense of separation between acquiescence to the collective will, and respect for the discretion of the individual. (Russell 1938:227)
Collective action should be restricted to two domains. First, it should be used to treat problems that are primarily "geographical", which include issues of sanitation, transportation, electricity, and external threats. Second, it ought to be used when a kind of individual freedom poses a major threat to public order; for instance, speech that incites the breaking of law (Russell 1938:227–228). The exception to this rule is when there is a minority which densely populates a certain well defined area, in which case, political devolution is preferable. In formulating his outlook on the preferable size of government, Russell encounters a dilemma. He notes that, the smaller the democracy, the more empowerment the citizen feels; yet the larger the democracy, the more the citizen's passions and interests are inflamed. In both situations, the result is voter fatigue. (Russell 1938:229) There are two possible solutions to this problem: to organise political life according to vocational interests, as with unionisation; or to organise it according to interest groups. (Russell 1938:229–230)
"In former days, men sold themselves to the Devil to acquire magical powers. Nowadays they acquire those powers from science, and find themselves compelled to become devils. There is no hope for the world unless power can be tamed, and brought into the service, not of this or that group of fanatical tyrants, but of the whole human race for science has made it inevitable that all must live or all must die." Bertrand Russell (1938:22)
A federal government is only sensible, for Russell, when it has limited but well defined powers. Russell advocates the creation of a world government made up of sovereign nation states (Russell 1938:197, 230–31). On his view, the function of a world government should only be to ensure the avoidance of war and the pursuit of peace (Russell 1938:230 31). On the world stage, democracy would be impossible, because of the negligible power any particular individual could have in comparison with the entire human race. One final suggestion for political policy reform is the notion that there ought to be a political balance in every branch of public service. Lack of balance in public institutions creates havens for reactionary forces, which in turn undermine democracy. Russell emphasises two conditions necessary for the achievement of balance. He advocates, first, the abolition of the legal standing of confessions as evidence, to remove the incentive for extraction of confession under torture by the police (Russell 1938:232). Second, the creation of dual branches of police to investigate particular crimes: one which presumes the innocence of the accused, the other presuming guilt (Russell 1938:233). Competition, for Russell, is a word that may have many uses. Although most often meant to refer to competition between companies, it may also be used to speak of competition between states, between ideologues, between classes, rivals, trusts, workers, etc. On this topic, Russell ultimately wishes to answer two questions: "First, in what kinds of cases is competition technically wasteful? Secondly, in what cases is it desirable on non technical grounds?" (Russell 1938:176). In asking these questions, he has two concerns directly in mind: economic competition, and the competition of propaganda. The question of whether or not economic competition is defensible requires an examination from two perspectives: the moral point of view and the technical point of view. From the view of the technician, certain goods and services can only be provided efficiently by a centralised authority. For Russell, it seems to be an economic fact that bigger organisations were capable of producing items at a certain standard, and best suited to fill needs that are geographical in nature, such as railways and water treatment. By contrast, smaller organisations (like businesses) are best suited to create products that are customised and local. (Russell 1938:176–177, 234)
From the view of the ethicist, competition between states is on the same moral plane as competition between modern businesses (Russell 1938:177). Indeed, by Russell's account, economic power and political power are both capable of devastation:
"In democratic countries, the most important private organisations are economic. Unlike secret societies, they are able to exercise their terrorism without illegality, since they do not threaten to kill their enemies, but only to starve them." (Russell 1938:147)
Since they are morally equivalent, perhaps it is not surprising that the cure for political injustices is identical to the cure for economic ones: namely, the institution of democracy in both economic and political spheres (Russell 1938:234). By 'economic democracy', Russell means a kind of democratic socialism, which at the very least involves the nationalisation of select industries (railways, water, television). In order for this to operate effectively, he argues that the social system must be such that power is distributed across a society of highly autonomous persons. (Russell 1938:238–240)
Russell is careful to indicate that his support for nationalisation rests on the assumption that it can be accomplished under the auspices of a robust democracy, and that it may be safeguarded against statist tyranny. If either condition fail, then nationalisation is undesirable. In delivering this warning, Russell emphasises the distinction between ownership and control. He points out that nationalisation – which would allow the citizens to collectively own an industry – would not guarantee any of them control over the industry. In the same way, shareholders own parts of companies, but the control of the company ultimately rests with the CEO (Russell 1938:235). Control over propaganda is another matter. When forming his argument here, Russell specifically targets the doctrines of John Stuart Mill. Russell argues that Mill's argument for the freedom of speech is too weak, so long as it is balanced against the harm principle; for any speech worth protecting for political reasons is likely to cause somebody harm. For example, the citizen ought to have the opportunity to impeach malicious governors, but that would surely harm the governor, at the very least (Russell 1938:179). Russell replaces Mill's analysis with an examination of the issue from four perspectives: the perspective of the governor, the citizen, the innovator, and the philosopher. The rational governor is always threatened by revolutionary activities, and can always be expected to ban speech which calls for assassination. Yet the governor would be advised to allow freedom of speech to prevent and diminish discontent among the subjects, and has no reason to suppress ideas which are unrelated to his governance, for instance the Copernican doctrine of heliocentrism. Relatedly, the citizen mainly understands free speech as an extension of the right to do peaceably that which could only otherwise be done through violence (Russell 1938:179–182). The innovator does not tend to care much about free speech, since they engage in innovation despite social resistance. Innovators may be separated into three categories: the hard millenarians, who believe in their doctrine to the exclusion of all others, and who only seek to protect the dissemination of their own creeds; the virtuous millenarians, who emphasise that revolutionary transitions must begin through rational persuasion and the guidance of sages, and so are supportive of free speech; and the progressives, who cannot foresee the direction of future progress, but recognise that the free exchange of ideas is a prerequisite to it. For the philosopher, free speech allows people to engage in rational doubt, and to grow in their prudential duties. (Russell 1938:182–185)
In any case, the citizen's right to dissent and to decide their governor is sacrosanct for Russell. He believes that a true public square could be operated by state run media outlets, like the BBC, which would be charged with the duty to provide a wide range of points of view on political matters. For certain other topics, like art and science, the fullest and freest competition between ideas must be guaranteed. (Russell 1938:185)
The final discussion in the work is concerned with Russell's views on education. (Russell 1938:242–251) Citizens of a healthy democracy must have two virtues, for Russell: the "sense of self reliance and confidence" necessary for autonomous action; and the humility required to "submit to the will of the majority" when it has spoken. (Russell 1938:244) The last chapter of Power: A New Social Analysis concentrates significantly on the question of how to inspire confidence in students, from an educator's point of view. Two major conditions are necessary. First, the citizen/student must be free from hatred, fear, and the impulse to submit. (Russell 1938:244–245) Economic opportunities will have some impact on the student's temperament in this regard, and so, economic reforms need to be made to create more opportunities. But reform to the education system is also necessary, in particular, to foster in the student a kindness, curiosity, and intellectual commitment to science. The common trait of students with the scientific mind is a sense of balance between dogmatism and scepticism. (Russell 1938:246)
Moreover, the student must have good instructors, who emphasise reason over rhetoric. Russell indicates that the critical mind is an essential feature of the healthy citizen of a democracy, since collective hysteria is one of the greatest threats to democracy (Russell 1938:248). To foster a critical mind, he suggests, the teacher ought to show the students the consequences of pursuing one's feelings over one's thoughts. For example, the teacher might allow students to choose a field trip between two different locations: one fantastic place which is given a dull overview, and a shabby place which is recommended by impressive advertisements. In teaching history, the teacher might examine a particular event from a multitude of different perspectives, and allow the students to use their critical faculties to make assessments of each. (Russell 1938:247) In all cases, the object would be to encourage self growth, a willingness to be "tentative in judgment", and "responsiveness to evidence". (Russell 1938:250)
The work ends with the following words: Fichte and the powerful men who have inherited his ideals, when they see children, think: 'Here is material that I can manipulate' All this, to any person with natural affection for the young, is horrible; just as we teach children to avoid being destroyed by motor cars if they can, so we should teach them to avoid being destroyed by cruel fanatics This is the task of a liberal education: to give a sense of the value of things other than domination, to help create wise citizens of a free community, and through the combination of citizenship with liberty in individual creativeness to enable men to give to human life that splendour which some few have shown that it can achieve (Russell 1938:251).
Этикалық тұрғысынан қарағанда, мемлекеттер арасындағы бәсекелестік заманауи бизнес арасындағы бәсекелестікпен бірдей деңгейде. (Рассел 1938:177). Шындығында, Расселдің пікірінше, экономикалық және саяси билік екеуі де қиратуға қабілетті:
Moreover, democracy must be infused with a respect for the autonomy of persons, so that the political body does not collapse into the tyranny of the majority. To prevent this result, people must have a well developed sense of separation between acquiescence to the collective will, and respect for the discretion of the individual. (Russell 1938:227)
Collective action should be restricted to two domains. First, it should be used to treat problems that are primarily "geographical", which include issues of sanitation, transportation, electricity, and external threats. Second, it ought to be used when a kind of individual freedom poses a major threat to public order; for instance, speech that incites the breaking of law (Russell 1938:227–228). The exception to this rule is when there is a minority which densely populates a certain well defined area, in which case, political devolution is preferable. In formulating his outlook on the preferable size of government, Russell encounters a dilemma. He notes that, the smaller the democracy, the more empowerment the citizen feels; yet the larger the democracy, the more the citizen's passions and interests are inflamed. In both situations, the result is voter fatigue. (Russell 1938:229) There are two possible solutions to this problem: to organise political life according to vocational interests, as with unionisation; or to organise it according to interest groups. (Russell 1938:229–230)
"In former days, men sold themselves to the Devil to acquire magical powers. Nowadays they acquire those powers from science, and find themselves compelled to become devils. There is no hope for the world unless power can be tamed, and brought into the service, not of this or that group of fanatical tyrants, but of the whole human race for science has made it inevitable that all must live or all must die." Bertrand Russell (1938:22)
A federal government is only sensible, for Russell, when it has limited but well defined powers. Russell advocates the creation of a world government made up of sovereign nation states (Russell 1938:197, 230–31). On his view, the function of a world government should only be to ensure the avoidance of war and the pursuit of peace (Russell 1938:230 31). On the world stage, democracy would be impossible, because of the negligible power any particular individual could have in comparison with the entire human race. One final suggestion for political policy reform is the notion that there ought to be a political balance in every branch of public service. Lack of balance in public institutions creates havens for reactionary forces, which in turn undermine democracy. Russell emphasises two conditions necessary for the achievement of balance. He advocates, first, the abolition of the legal standing of confessions as evidence, to remove the incentive for extraction of confession under torture by the police (Russell 1938:232). Second, the creation of dual branches of police to investigate particular crimes: one which presumes the innocence of the accused, the other presuming guilt (Russell 1938:233). Competition, for Russell, is a word that may have many uses. Although most often meant to refer to competition between companies, it may also be used to speak of competition between states, between ideologues, between classes, rivals, trusts, workers, etc. On this topic, Russell ultimately wishes to answer two questions: "First, in what kinds of cases is competition technically wasteful? Secondly, in what cases is it desirable on non technical grounds?" (Russell 1938:176). In asking these questions, he has two concerns directly in mind: economic competition, and the competition of propaganda. The question of whether or not economic competition is defensible requires an examination from two perspectives: the moral point of view and the technical point of view. From the view of the technician, certain goods and services can only be provided efficiently by a centralised authority. For Russell, it seems to be an economic fact that bigger organisations were capable of producing items at a certain standard, and best suited to fill needs that are geographical in nature, such as railways and water treatment. By contrast, smaller organisations (like businesses) are best suited to create products that are customised and local. (Russell 1938:176–177, 234)
From the view of the ethicist, competition between states is on the same moral plane as competition between modern businesses (Russell 1938:177). Indeed, by Russell's account, economic power and political power are both capable of devastation:
"In democratic countries, the most important private organisations are economic. Unlike secret societies, they are able to exercise their terrorism without illegality, since they do not threaten to kill their enemies, but only to starve them." (Russell 1938:147)
Since they are morally equivalent, perhaps it is not surprising that the cure for political injustices is identical to the cure for economic ones: namely, the institution of democracy in both economic and political spheres (Russell 1938:234). By 'economic democracy', Russell means a kind of democratic socialism, which at the very least involves the nationalisation of select industries (railways, water, television). In order for this to operate effectively, he argues that the social system must be such that power is distributed across a society of highly autonomous persons. (Russell 1938:238–240)
Russell is careful to indicate that his support for nationalisation rests on the assumption that it can be accomplished under the auspices of a robust democracy, and that it may be safeguarded against statist tyranny. If either condition fail, then nationalisation is undesirable. In delivering this warning, Russell emphasises the distinction between ownership and control. He points out that nationalisation – which would allow the citizens to collectively own an industry – would not guarantee any of them control over the industry. In the same way, shareholders own parts of companies, but the control of the company ultimately rests with the CEO (Russell 1938:235). Control over propaganda is another matter. When forming his argument here, Russell specifically targets the doctrines of John Stuart Mill. Russell argues that Mill's argument for the freedom of speech is too weak, so long as it is balanced against the harm principle; for any speech worth protecting for political reasons is likely to cause somebody harm. For example, the citizen ought to have the opportunity to impeach malicious governors, but that would surely harm the governor, at the very least (Russell 1938:179). Russell replaces Mill's analysis with an examination of the issue from four perspectives: the perspective of the governor, the citizen, the innovator, and the philosopher. The rational governor is always threatened by revolutionary activities, and can always be expected to ban speech which calls for assassination. Yet the governor would be advised to allow freedom of speech to prevent and diminish discontent among the subjects, and has no reason to suppress ideas which are unrelated to his governance, for instance the Copernican doctrine of heliocentrism. Relatedly, the citizen mainly understands free speech as an extension of the right to do peaceably that which could only otherwise be done through violence (Russell 1938:179–182). The innovator does not tend to care much about free speech, since they engage in innovation despite social resistance. Innovators may be separated into three categories: the hard millenarians, who believe in their doctrine to the exclusion of all others, and who only seek to protect the dissemination of their own creeds; the virtuous millenarians, who emphasise that revolutionary transitions must begin through rational persuasion and the guidance of sages, and so are supportive of free speech; and the progressives, who cannot foresee the direction of future progress, but recognise that the free exchange of ideas is a prerequisite to it. For the philosopher, free speech allows people to engage in rational doubt, and to grow in their prudential duties. (Russell 1938:182–185)
In any case, the citizen's right to dissent and to decide their governor is sacrosanct for Russell. He believes that a true public square could be operated by state run media outlets, like the BBC, which would be charged with the duty to provide a wide range of points of view on political matters. For certain other topics, like art and science, the fullest and freest competition between ideas must be guaranteed. (Russell 1938:185)
The final discussion in the work is concerned with Russell's views on education. (Russell 1938:242–251) Citizens of a healthy democracy must have two virtues, for Russell: the "sense of self reliance and confidence" necessary for autonomous action; and the humility required to "submit to the will of the majority" when it has spoken. (Russell 1938:244) The last chapter of Power: A New Social Analysis concentrates significantly on the question of how to inspire confidence in students, from an educator's point of view. Two major conditions are necessary. First, the citizen/student must be free from hatred, fear, and the impulse to submit. (Russell 1938:244–245) Economic opportunities will have some impact on the student's temperament in this regard, and so, economic reforms need to be made to create more opportunities. But reform to the education system is also necessary, in particular, to foster in the student a kindness, curiosity, and intellectual commitment to science. The common trait of students with the scientific mind is a sense of balance between dogmatism and scepticism. (Russell 1938:246)
Moreover, the student must have good instructors, who emphasise reason over rhetoric. Russell indicates that the critical mind is an essential feature of the healthy citizen of a democracy, since collective hysteria is one of the greatest threats to democracy (Russell 1938:248). To foster a critical mind, he suggests, the teacher ought to show the students the consequences of pursuing one's feelings over one's thoughts. For example, the teacher might allow students to choose a field trip between two different locations: one fantastic place which is given a dull overview, and a shabby place which is recommended by impressive advertisements. In teaching history, the teacher might examine a particular event from a multitude of different perspectives, and allow the students to use their critical faculties to make assessments of each. (Russell 1938:247) In all cases, the object would be to encourage self growth, a willingness to be "tentative in judgment", and "responsiveness to evidence". (Russell 1938:250)
The work ends with the following words: Fichte and the powerful men who have inherited his ideals, when they see children, think: 'Here is material that I can manipulate' All this, to any person with natural affection for the young, is horrible; just as we teach children to avoid being destroyed by motor cars if they can, so we should teach them to avoid being destroyed by cruel fanatics This is the task of a liberal education: to give a sense of the value of things other than domination, to help create wise citizens of a free community, and through the combination of citizenship with liberty in individual creativeness to enable men to give to human life that splendour which some few have shown that it can achieve (Russell 1938:251).
«Демократиялық елдердегі ең маңызды жеке ұйымдар экономикалық. Жасырын қоғамдардан айырмашылығы, олар өз жауларын өлтіру қаупін тудырмастан, терроризмді заңсыздықсыз жүзеге асыра алады, олар оларды аштыққа ұшыратуға ғана тырысады». (Рассел 1938:147)
Moreover, democracy must be infused with a respect for the autonomy of persons, so that the political body does not collapse into the tyranny of the majority. To prevent this result, people must have a well developed sense of separation between acquiescence to the collective will, and respect for the discretion of the individual. (Russell 1938:227)
Collective action should be restricted to two domains. First, it should be used to treat problems that are primarily "geographical", which include issues of sanitation, transportation, electricity, and external threats. Second, it ought to be used when a kind of individual freedom poses a major threat to public order; for instance, speech that incites the breaking of law (Russell 1938:227–228). The exception to this rule is when there is a minority which densely populates a certain well defined area, in which case, political devolution is preferable. In formulating his outlook on the preferable size of government, Russell encounters a dilemma. He notes that, the smaller the democracy, the more empowerment the citizen feels; yet the larger the democracy, the more the citizen's passions and interests are inflamed. In both situations, the result is voter fatigue. (Russell 1938:229) There are two possible solutions to this problem: to organise political life according to vocational interests, as with unionisation; or to organise it according to interest groups. (Russell 1938:229–230)
"In former days, men sold themselves to the Devil to acquire magical powers. Nowadays they acquire those powers from science, and find themselves compelled to become devils. There is no hope for the world unless power can be tamed, and brought into the service, not of this or that group of fanatical tyrants, but of the whole human race for science has made it inevitable that all must live or all must die." Bertrand Russell (1938:22)
A federal government is only sensible, for Russell, when it has limited but well defined powers. Russell advocates the creation of a world government made up of sovereign nation states (Russell 1938:197, 230–31). On his view, the function of a world government should only be to ensure the avoidance of war and the pursuit of peace (Russell 1938:230 31). On the world stage, democracy would be impossible, because of the negligible power any particular individual could have in comparison with the entire human race. One final suggestion for political policy reform is the notion that there ought to be a political balance in every branch of public service. Lack of balance in public institutions creates havens for reactionary forces, which in turn undermine democracy. Russell emphasises two conditions necessary for the achievement of balance. He advocates, first, the abolition of the legal standing of confessions as evidence, to remove the incentive for extraction of confession under torture by the police (Russell 1938:232). Second, the creation of dual branches of police to investigate particular crimes: one which presumes the innocence of the accused, the other presuming guilt (Russell 1938:233). Competition, for Russell, is a word that may have many uses. Although most often meant to refer to competition between companies, it may also be used to speak of competition between states, between ideologues, between classes, rivals, trusts, workers, etc. On this topic, Russell ultimately wishes to answer two questions: "First, in what kinds of cases is competition technically wasteful? Secondly, in what cases is it desirable on non technical grounds?" (Russell 1938:176). In asking these questions, he has two concerns directly in mind: economic competition, and the competition of propaganda. The question of whether or not economic competition is defensible requires an examination from two perspectives: the moral point of view and the technical point of view. From the view of the technician, certain goods and services can only be provided efficiently by a centralised authority. For Russell, it seems to be an economic fact that bigger organisations were capable of producing items at a certain standard, and best suited to fill needs that are geographical in nature, such as railways and water treatment. By contrast, smaller organisations (like businesses) are best suited to create products that are customised and local. (Russell 1938:176–177, 234)
From the view of the ethicist, competition between states is on the same moral plane as competition between modern businesses (Russell 1938:177). Indeed, by Russell's account, economic power and political power are both capable of devastation:
"In democratic countries, the most important private organisations are economic. Unlike secret societies, they are able to exercise their terrorism without illegality, since they do not threaten to kill their enemies, but only to starve them." (Russell 1938:147)
Since they are morally equivalent, perhaps it is not surprising that the cure for political injustices is identical to the cure for economic ones: namely, the institution of democracy in both economic and political spheres (Russell 1938:234). By 'economic democracy', Russell means a kind of democratic socialism, which at the very least involves the nationalisation of select industries (railways, water, television). In order for this to operate effectively, he argues that the social system must be such that power is distributed across a society of highly autonomous persons. (Russell 1938:238–240)
Russell is careful to indicate that his support for nationalisation rests on the assumption that it can be accomplished under the auspices of a robust democracy, and that it may be safeguarded against statist tyranny. If either condition fail, then nationalisation is undesirable. In delivering this warning, Russell emphasises the distinction between ownership and control. He points out that nationalisation – which would allow the citizens to collectively own an industry – would not guarantee any of them control over the industry. In the same way, shareholders own parts of companies, but the control of the company ultimately rests with the CEO (Russell 1938:235). Control over propaganda is another matter. When forming his argument here, Russell specifically targets the doctrines of John Stuart Mill. Russell argues that Mill's argument for the freedom of speech is too weak, so long as it is balanced against the harm principle; for any speech worth protecting for political reasons is likely to cause somebody harm. For example, the citizen ought to have the opportunity to impeach malicious governors, but that would surely harm the governor, at the very least (Russell 1938:179). Russell replaces Mill's analysis with an examination of the issue from four perspectives: the perspective of the governor, the citizen, the innovator, and the philosopher. The rational governor is always threatened by revolutionary activities, and can always be expected to ban speech which calls for assassination. Yet the governor would be advised to allow freedom of speech to prevent and diminish discontent among the subjects, and has no reason to suppress ideas which are unrelated to his governance, for instance the Copernican doctrine of heliocentrism. Relatedly, the citizen mainly understands free speech as an extension of the right to do peaceably that which could only otherwise be done through violence (Russell 1938:179–182). The innovator does not tend to care much about free speech, since they engage in innovation despite social resistance. Innovators may be separated into three categories: the hard millenarians, who believe in their doctrine to the exclusion of all others, and who only seek to protect the dissemination of their own creeds; the virtuous millenarians, who emphasise that revolutionary transitions must begin through rational persuasion and the guidance of sages, and so are supportive of free speech; and the progressives, who cannot foresee the direction of future progress, but recognise that the free exchange of ideas is a prerequisite to it. For the philosopher, free speech allows people to engage in rational doubt, and to grow in their prudential duties. (Russell 1938:182–185)
In any case, the citizen's right to dissent and to decide their governor is sacrosanct for Russell. He believes that a true public square could be operated by state run media outlets, like the BBC, which would be charged with the duty to provide a wide range of points of view on political matters. For certain other topics, like art and science, the fullest and freest competition between ideas must be guaranteed. (Russell 1938:185)
The final discussion in the work is concerned with Russell's views on education. (Russell 1938:242–251) Citizens of a healthy democracy must have two virtues, for Russell: the "sense of self reliance and confidence" necessary for autonomous action; and the humility required to "submit to the will of the majority" when it has spoken. (Russell 1938:244) The last chapter of Power: A New Social Analysis concentrates significantly on the question of how to inspire confidence in students, from an educator's point of view. Two major conditions are necessary. First, the citizen/student must be free from hatred, fear, and the impulse to submit. (Russell 1938:244–245) Economic opportunities will have some impact on the student's temperament in this regard, and so, economic reforms need to be made to create more opportunities. But reform to the education system is also necessary, in particular, to foster in the student a kindness, curiosity, and intellectual commitment to science. The common trait of students with the scientific mind is a sense of balance between dogmatism and scepticism. (Russell 1938:246)
Moreover, the student must have good instructors, who emphasise reason over rhetoric. Russell indicates that the critical mind is an essential feature of the healthy citizen of a democracy, since collective hysteria is one of the greatest threats to democracy (Russell 1938:248). To foster a critical mind, he suggests, the teacher ought to show the students the consequences of pursuing one's feelings over one's thoughts. For example, the teacher might allow students to choose a field trip between two different locations: one fantastic place which is given a dull overview, and a shabby place which is recommended by impressive advertisements. In teaching history, the teacher might examine a particular event from a multitude of different perspectives, and allow the students to use their critical faculties to make assessments of each. (Russell 1938:247) In all cases, the object would be to encourage self growth, a willingness to be "tentative in judgment", and "responsiveness to evidence". (Russell 1938:250)
The work ends with the following words: Fichte and the powerful men who have inherited his ideals, when they see children, think: 'Here is material that I can manipulate' All this, to any person with natural affection for the young, is horrible; just as we teach children to avoid being destroyed by motor cars if they can, so we should teach them to avoid being destroyed by cruel fanatics This is the task of a liberal education: to give a sense of the value of things other than domination, to help create wise citizens of a free community, and through the combination of citizenship with liberty in individual creativeness to enable men to give to human life that splendour which some few have shown that it can achieve (Russell 1938:251).
Олар моральдық жағынан тең болғандықтан, саяси теңсіздіктің емделуі экономикалық теңсіздіктің емделуімен бірдей болуы таңқаларлық емес: атап айтқанда, экономикалық және саяси салаларда демократия институтын құру. (Рассел 1938:234) «Экономикалық демократия» терминімен Рассел демократиялық социализмнің бір түрін білдіреді, ол кемінде теміржол, су және теледидар сияқты таңдалған салаларды мемлекеттендіруді қамтиды. Бұл тиімді жұмыс істеуі үшін, қоғамдық жүйе биліктің жоғары дербес адамдардан тұратын қоғамға таралуын қамтамасыз етуі керек. (Рассел 1938:238–240)
Moreover, democracy must be infused with a respect for the autonomy of persons, so that the political body does not collapse into the tyranny of the majority. To prevent this result, people must have a well developed sense of separation between acquiescence to the collective will, and respect for the discretion of the individual. (Russell 1938:227)
Collective action should be restricted to two domains. First, it should be used to treat problems that are primarily "geographical", which include issues of sanitation, transportation, electricity, and external threats. Second, it ought to be used when a kind of individual freedom poses a major threat to public order; for instance, speech that incites the breaking of law (Russell 1938:227–228). The exception to this rule is when there is a minority which densely populates a certain well defined area, in which case, political devolution is preferable. In formulating his outlook on the preferable size of government, Russell encounters a dilemma. He notes that, the smaller the democracy, the more empowerment the citizen feels; yet the larger the democracy, the more the citizen's passions and interests are inflamed. In both situations, the result is voter fatigue. (Russell 1938:229) There are two possible solutions to this problem: to organise political life according to vocational interests, as with unionisation; or to organise it according to interest groups. (Russell 1938:229–230)
"In former days, men sold themselves to the Devil to acquire magical powers. Nowadays they acquire those powers from science, and find themselves compelled to become devils. There is no hope for the world unless power can be tamed, and brought into the service, not of this or that group of fanatical tyrants, but of the whole human race for science has made it inevitable that all must live or all must die." Bertrand Russell (1938:22)
A federal government is only sensible, for Russell, when it has limited but well defined powers. Russell advocates the creation of a world government made up of sovereign nation states (Russell 1938:197, 230–31). On his view, the function of a world government should only be to ensure the avoidance of war and the pursuit of peace (Russell 1938:230 31). On the world stage, democracy would be impossible, because of the negligible power any particular individual could have in comparison with the entire human race. One final suggestion for political policy reform is the notion that there ought to be a political balance in every branch of public service. Lack of balance in public institutions creates havens for reactionary forces, which in turn undermine democracy. Russell emphasises two conditions necessary for the achievement of balance. He advocates, first, the abolition of the legal standing of confessions as evidence, to remove the incentive for extraction of confession under torture by the police (Russell 1938:232). Second, the creation of dual branches of police to investigate particular crimes: one which presumes the innocence of the accused, the other presuming guilt (Russell 1938:233). Competition, for Russell, is a word that may have many uses. Although most often meant to refer to competition between companies, it may also be used to speak of competition between states, between ideologues, between classes, rivals, trusts, workers, etc. On this topic, Russell ultimately wishes to answer two questions: "First, in what kinds of cases is competition technically wasteful? Secondly, in what cases is it desirable on non technical grounds?" (Russell 1938:176). In asking these questions, he has two concerns directly in mind: economic competition, and the competition of propaganda. The question of whether or not economic competition is defensible requires an examination from two perspectives: the moral point of view and the technical point of view. From the view of the technician, certain goods and services can only be provided efficiently by a centralised authority. For Russell, it seems to be an economic fact that bigger organisations were capable of producing items at a certain standard, and best suited to fill needs that are geographical in nature, such as railways and water treatment. By contrast, smaller organisations (like businesses) are best suited to create products that are customised and local. (Russell 1938:176–177, 234)
From the view of the ethicist, competition between states is on the same moral plane as competition between modern businesses (Russell 1938:177). Indeed, by Russell's account, economic power and political power are both capable of devastation:
"In democratic countries, the most important private organisations are economic. Unlike secret societies, they are able to exercise their terrorism without illegality, since they do not threaten to kill their enemies, but only to starve them." (Russell 1938:147)
Since they are morally equivalent, perhaps it is not surprising that the cure for political injustices is identical to the cure for economic ones: namely, the institution of democracy in both economic and political spheres (Russell 1938:234). By 'economic democracy', Russell means a kind of democratic socialism, which at the very least involves the nationalisation of select industries (railways, water, television). In order for this to operate effectively, he argues that the social system must be such that power is distributed across a society of highly autonomous persons. (Russell 1938:238–240)
Russell is careful to indicate that his support for nationalisation rests on the assumption that it can be accomplished under the auspices of a robust democracy, and that it may be safeguarded against statist tyranny. If either condition fail, then nationalisation is undesirable. In delivering this warning, Russell emphasises the distinction between ownership and control. He points out that nationalisation – which would allow the citizens to collectively own an industry – would not guarantee any of them control over the industry. In the same way, shareholders own parts of companies, but the control of the company ultimately rests with the CEO (Russell 1938:235). Control over propaganda is another matter. When forming his argument here, Russell specifically targets the doctrines of John Stuart Mill. Russell argues that Mill's argument for the freedom of speech is too weak, so long as it is balanced against the harm principle; for any speech worth protecting for political reasons is likely to cause somebody harm. For example, the citizen ought to have the opportunity to impeach malicious governors, but that would surely harm the governor, at the very least (Russell 1938:179). Russell replaces Mill's analysis with an examination of the issue from four perspectives: the perspective of the governor, the citizen, the innovator, and the philosopher. The rational governor is always threatened by revolutionary activities, and can always be expected to ban speech which calls for assassination. Yet the governor would be advised to allow freedom of speech to prevent and diminish discontent among the subjects, and has no reason to suppress ideas which are unrelated to his governance, for instance the Copernican doctrine of heliocentrism. Relatedly, the citizen mainly understands free speech as an extension of the right to do peaceably that which could only otherwise be done through violence (Russell 1938:179–182). The innovator does not tend to care much about free speech, since they engage in innovation despite social resistance. Innovators may be separated into three categories: the hard millenarians, who believe in their doctrine to the exclusion of all others, and who only seek to protect the dissemination of their own creeds; the virtuous millenarians, who emphasise that revolutionary transitions must begin through rational persuasion and the guidance of sages, and so are supportive of free speech; and the progressives, who cannot foresee the direction of future progress, but recognise that the free exchange of ideas is a prerequisite to it. For the philosopher, free speech allows people to engage in rational doubt, and to grow in their prudential duties. (Russell 1938:182–185)
In any case, the citizen's right to dissent and to decide their governor is sacrosanct for Russell. He believes that a true public square could be operated by state run media outlets, like the BBC, which would be charged with the duty to provide a wide range of points of view on political matters. For certain other topics, like art and science, the fullest and freest competition between ideas must be guaranteed. (Russell 1938:185)
The final discussion in the work is concerned with Russell's views on education. (Russell 1938:242–251) Citizens of a healthy democracy must have two virtues, for Russell: the "sense of self reliance and confidence" necessary for autonomous action; and the humility required to "submit to the will of the majority" when it has spoken. (Russell 1938:244) The last chapter of Power: A New Social Analysis concentrates significantly on the question of how to inspire confidence in students, from an educator's point of view. Two major conditions are necessary. First, the citizen/student must be free from hatred, fear, and the impulse to submit. (Russell 1938:244–245) Economic opportunities will have some impact on the student's temperament in this regard, and so, economic reforms need to be made to create more opportunities. But reform to the education system is also necessary, in particular, to foster in the student a kindness, curiosity, and intellectual commitment to science. The common trait of students with the scientific mind is a sense of balance between dogmatism and scepticism. (Russell 1938:246)
Moreover, the student must have good instructors, who emphasise reason over rhetoric. Russell indicates that the critical mind is an essential feature of the healthy citizen of a democracy, since collective hysteria is one of the greatest threats to democracy (Russell 1938:248). To foster a critical mind, he suggests, the teacher ought to show the students the consequences of pursuing one's feelings over one's thoughts. For example, the teacher might allow students to choose a field trip between two different locations: one fantastic place which is given a dull overview, and a shabby place which is recommended by impressive advertisements. In teaching history, the teacher might examine a particular event from a multitude of different perspectives, and allow the students to use their critical faculties to make assessments of each. (Russell 1938:247) In all cases, the object would be to encourage self growth, a willingness to be "tentative in judgment", and "responsiveness to evidence". (Russell 1938:250)
The work ends with the following words: Fichte and the powerful men who have inherited his ideals, when they see children, think: 'Here is material that I can manipulate' All this, to any person with natural affection for the young, is horrible; just as we teach children to avoid being destroyed by motor cars if they can, so we should teach them to avoid being destroyed by cruel fanatics This is the task of a liberal education: to give a sense of the value of things other than domination, to help create wise citizens of a free community, and through the combination of citizenship with liberty in individual creativeness to enable men to give to human life that splendour which some few have shown that it can achieve (Russell 1938:251).
Рассел мемлекеттендіруді қолдауының тек оны күшті демократияның қанатында жүзеге асыруға болатыны және оны мемлекеттік тираниядан қорғауға болатыны туралы ескертеді. Егер екі шарттың бірі орындалмаса, мемлекеттендіру қажет емес. Осы ескертуді жасағанда, Рассел меншік және басқару арасындағы айырмашылықты атап көрсетеді. Ол мемлекеттендіру – азаматтарға бірлесіп өндіріс құралдарын меншікке беруге мүмкіндік беретінін, бірақ олардың ешқайсысына өндіріс құралдарын басқару құқығын бермейтінін атап көрсетеді. Ұқсас жағдайда акционерлер компанияның бір бөлігін меншікке иеленеді, бірақ компанияны басқарудың соңғы құқығы бас директордың қолында болады. (Рассел 1938:235) Пропаганданы басқару – басқа мәселе. Мұнда Рассел Джон Стюарт Милдің доктринасына қатысты айтады. Рассел Милдің сөз бостандығы туралы аргументі зияндылық принципімен теңдестірілгенше әлсіз деп санайды, өйткені саяси себептермен қорғалатын кез келген сөз біреуге зиян келтіруі мүмкін. Мысалы, азаматтар заңсыз әрекеттер жасаған губернаторларды соттауға мүмкіндік алғаны жөн, бірақ бұл губернаторға зиян келтіреді. (Рассел 1938:179) Рассел Милдің талдауын губернатор, азамат, инноватор және философтың көзқарастарынан қарастырумен алмастырады. Ақылды губернатор әрқашан революциялық әрекеттерден қорқып, қастандық туралы сөздерді тыйым салуға тырысады. Дегенмен, губернатор азаматтар арасындағы наразылықты болдырмау және азайту үшін сөз бостандығына жол беруге кеңес береді және оның басқаруына қатысы жоқ идеяларды, мысалы, гелиоцентризм доктринасын басудың қажеті жоқ. Сондай-ақ, азамат негізінен...
Moreover, democracy must be infused with a respect for the autonomy of persons, so that the political body does not collapse into the tyranny of the majority. To prevent this result, people must have a well developed sense of separation between acquiescence to the collective will, and respect for the discretion of the individual. (Russell 1938:227)
Collective action should be restricted to two domains. First, it should be used to treat problems that are primarily "geographical", which include issues of sanitation, transportation, electricity, and external threats. Second, it ought to be used when a kind of individual freedom poses a major threat to public order; for instance, speech that incites the breaking of law (Russell 1938:227–228). The exception to this rule is when there is a minority which densely populates a certain well defined area, in which case, political devolution is preferable. In formulating his outlook on the preferable size of government, Russell encounters a dilemma. He notes that, the smaller the democracy, the more empowerment the citizen feels; yet the larger the democracy, the more the citizen's passions and interests are inflamed. In both situations, the result is voter fatigue. (Russell 1938:229) There are two possible solutions to this problem: to organise political life according to vocational interests, as with unionisation; or to organise it according to interest groups. (Russell 1938:229–230)
"In former days, men sold themselves to the Devil to acquire magical powers. Nowadays they acquire those powers from science, and find themselves compelled to become devils. There is no hope for the world unless power can be tamed, and brought into the service, not of this or that group of fanatical tyrants, but of the whole human race for science has made it inevitable that all must live or all must die." Bertrand Russell (1938:22)
A federal government is only sensible, for Russell, when it has limited but well defined powers. Russell advocates the creation of a world government made up of sovereign nation states (Russell 1938:197, 230–31). On his view, the function of a world government should only be to ensure the avoidance of war and the pursuit of peace (Russell 1938:230 31). On the world stage, democracy would be impossible, because of the negligible power any particular individual could have in comparison with the entire human race. One final suggestion for political policy reform is the notion that there ought to be a political balance in every branch of public service. Lack of balance in public institutions creates havens for reactionary forces, which in turn undermine democracy. Russell emphasises two conditions necessary for the achievement of balance. He advocates, first, the abolition of the legal standing of confessions as evidence, to remove the incentive for extraction of confession under torture by the police (Russell 1938:232). Second, the creation of dual branches of police to investigate particular crimes: one which presumes the innocence of the accused, the other presuming guilt (Russell 1938:233). Competition, for Russell, is a word that may have many uses. Although most often meant to refer to competition between companies, it may also be used to speak of competition between states, between ideologues, between classes, rivals, trusts, workers, etc. On this topic, Russell ultimately wishes to answer two questions: "First, in what kinds of cases is competition technically wasteful? Secondly, in what cases is it desirable on non technical grounds?" (Russell 1938:176). In asking these questions, he has two concerns directly in mind: economic competition, and the competition of propaganda. The question of whether or not economic competition is defensible requires an examination from two perspectives: the moral point of view and the technical point of view. From the view of the technician, certain goods and services can only be provided efficiently by a centralised authority. For Russell, it seems to be an economic fact that bigger organisations were capable of producing items at a certain standard, and best suited to fill needs that are geographical in nature, such as railways and water treatment. By contrast, smaller organisations (like businesses) are best suited to create products that are customised and local. (Russell 1938:176–177, 234)
From the view of the ethicist, competition between states is on the same moral plane as competition between modern businesses (Russell 1938:177). Indeed, by Russell's account, economic power and political power are both capable of devastation:
"In democratic countries, the most important private organisations are economic. Unlike secret societies, they are able to exercise their terrorism without illegality, since they do not threaten to kill their enemies, but only to starve them." (Russell 1938:147)
Since they are morally equivalent, perhaps it is not surprising that the cure for political injustices is identical to the cure for economic ones: namely, the institution of democracy in both economic and political spheres (Russell 1938:234). By 'economic democracy', Russell means a kind of democratic socialism, which at the very least involves the nationalisation of select industries (railways, water, television). In order for this to operate effectively, he argues that the social system must be such that power is distributed across a society of highly autonomous persons. (Russell 1938:238–240)
Russell is careful to indicate that his support for nationalisation rests on the assumption that it can be accomplished under the auspices of a robust democracy, and that it may be safeguarded against statist tyranny. If either condition fail, then nationalisation is undesirable. In delivering this warning, Russell emphasises the distinction between ownership and control. He points out that nationalisation – which would allow the citizens to collectively own an industry – would not guarantee any of them control over the industry. In the same way, shareholders own parts of companies, but the control of the company ultimately rests with the CEO (Russell 1938:235). Control over propaganda is another matter. When forming his argument here, Russell specifically targets the doctrines of John Stuart Mill. Russell argues that Mill's argument for the freedom of speech is too weak, so long as it is balanced against the harm principle; for any speech worth protecting for political reasons is likely to cause somebody harm. For example, the citizen ought to have the opportunity to impeach malicious governors, but that would surely harm the governor, at the very least (Russell 1938:179). Russell replaces Mill's analysis with an examination of the issue from four perspectives: the perspective of the governor, the citizen, the innovator, and the philosopher. The rational governor is always threatened by revolutionary activities, and can always be expected to ban speech which calls for assassination. Yet the governor would be advised to allow freedom of speech to prevent and diminish discontent among the subjects, and has no reason to suppress ideas which are unrelated to his governance, for instance the Copernican doctrine of heliocentrism. Relatedly, the citizen mainly understands free speech as an extension of the right to do peaceably that which could only otherwise be done through violence (Russell 1938:179–182). The innovator does not tend to care much about free speech, since they engage in innovation despite social resistance. Innovators may be separated into three categories: the hard millenarians, who believe in their doctrine to the exclusion of all others, and who only seek to protect the dissemination of their own creeds; the virtuous millenarians, who emphasise that revolutionary transitions must begin through rational persuasion and the guidance of sages, and so are supportive of free speech; and the progressives, who cannot foresee the direction of future progress, but recognise that the free exchange of ideas is a prerequisite to it. For the philosopher, free speech allows people to engage in rational doubt, and to grow in their prudential duties. (Russell 1938:182–185)
In any case, the citizen's right to dissent and to decide their governor is sacrosanct for Russell. He believes that a true public square could be operated by state run media outlets, like the BBC, which would be charged with the duty to provide a wide range of points of view on political matters. For certain other topics, like art and science, the fullest and freest competition between ideas must be guaranteed. (Russell 1938:185)
The final discussion in the work is concerned with Russell's views on education. (Russell 1938:242–251) Citizens of a healthy democracy must have two virtues, for Russell: the "sense of self reliance and confidence" necessary for autonomous action; and the humility required to "submit to the will of the majority" when it has spoken. (Russell 1938:244) The last chapter of Power: A New Social Analysis concentrates significantly on the question of how to inspire confidence in students, from an educator's point of view. Two major conditions are necessary. First, the citizen/student must be free from hatred, fear, and the impulse to submit. (Russell 1938:244–245) Economic opportunities will have some impact on the student's temperament in this regard, and so, economic reforms need to be made to create more opportunities. But reform to the education system is also necessary, in particular, to foster in the student a kindness, curiosity, and intellectual commitment to science. The common trait of students with the scientific mind is a sense of balance between dogmatism and scepticism. (Russell 1938:246)
Moreover, the student must have good instructors, who emphasise reason over rhetoric. Russell indicates that the critical mind is an essential feature of the healthy citizen of a democracy, since collective hysteria is one of the greatest threats to democracy (Russell 1938:248). To foster a critical mind, he suggests, the teacher ought to show the students the consequences of pursuing one's feelings over one's thoughts. For example, the teacher might allow students to choose a field trip between two different locations: one fantastic place which is given a dull overview, and a shabby place which is recommended by impressive advertisements. In teaching history, the teacher might examine a particular event from a multitude of different perspectives, and allow the students to use their critical faculties to make assessments of each. (Russell 1938:247) In all cases, the object would be to encourage self growth, a willingness to be "tentative in judgment", and "responsiveness to evidence". (Russell 1938:250)
The work ends with the following words: Fichte and the powerful men who have inherited his ideals, when they see children, think: 'Here is material that I can manipulate' All this, to any person with natural affection for the young, is horrible; just as we teach children to avoid being destroyed by motor cars if they can, so we should teach them to avoid being destroyed by cruel fanatics This is the task of a liberal education: to give a sense of the value of things other than domination, to help create wise citizens of a free community, and through the combination of citizenship with liberty in individual creativeness to enable men to give to human life that splendour which some few have shown that it can achieve (Russell 1938:251).
Тарихи контекст
"Қуат" (1938) сол кездегі жаңалықтарда кеңінен талқыланған саяси кемшіліктерді ескере отырып жазылған. Бұл еңбек Екінші дүниежүзілік соғысқа дейін жарық көрді және нацистік Германия мен фашистік Италияның диктатураларына бірнеше тікелей сілтемелер, сондай-ақ неміс чехословакиялықтарының қуғын-сүргініне бір сілтеме қамтиды. (Рассел 1938:147) Оның пікірлері ағымдағы оқиғалар туралы болғанда, көбінесе пессимистік болады. "Адамдар бір-бірін жек көріп, пайдаланып, азаптап жүрсе де, жақында ғана өмірдің басқаша жолын уағыздағандарға құрмет көрсеткен." (Рассел 1938:204; басымдық қосылған) Кирк Уиллис 1930 жылдардағы Расселдің көзқарасы туралы былай деді: "Ұлттық үкіметтердің қатарынан кейін келген сыртқы және ішкі саясаты оны қынжырды, сондай-ақ континенттегі тоталитарлық режимдердің жеңісі және солардың салдарынан соғысқа қадам басуы оны толқытты. Соғыстың болдырмау мүмкін емес екеніне көз жеткізіп, мұндай Еуропалық кең ауқымды соғыстың қараңғылық пен фанатизмнің жаңа дәуірін әкелетініне сенген Рассел өзінің көңілсіздігін "Бейбітшілікке қалай жетуге болады?" (1936) еңбегінде білдірді – бұл бағыну саясатын ұстанудың негізделген қорғанысы емес, жеңілісшілдіктің көрінісі." (Рассел 1938:xxii xxiii)
Нәтижесінде, өзінің жаңа талдауының арқасында Рассел басқаларға қасақана билікті қалай бағындыруға болатынын үйретуді үміттенеді. Ол тәуелсіз мемлекеттерден құралған тұрақты әлемдік үкімет құрылып, елдерді соғысқа бармауға ынталандырады деп үміттенді. Бұл аргумент Ұлттар Лигасы таратылғаннан кейін (және Біріккен Ұлттар Ұйымы құрылғанға дейін) айтылды. Сонымен қатар, Рассел еңбек бойында социализмнің бір түрінің қалыптасуын қалайтынын көп рет айтты. Бұл оның сол кездегі нанымдарына сәйкес келді, өйткені ол мансабының бір кезеңінде гильдиялық социализмнің мүмкіндігіне сенді. (След 1994; Рассел 1918)