Ядролық жарылыстардың бейбіт мақсаттағы қолданылуы: "Плугшер" жобасы

U. S. program examining the peaceful applications of nuclear explosives (1961–77)
proposed peaceful uses of nuclear weapons

Project Plowshare was the overall United States program for the development of techniques to use nuclear explosives for peaceful construction purposes. The program was organized in June 1957 as part of the worldwide Atoms for Peace efforts. As part of the program, 35 nuclear warheads were detonated in 27 separate tests. A similar program was carried out in the Soviet Union under the name Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy. Successful demonstrations of non combat uses for nuclear explosives include rock blasting, stimulation of tight gas, chemical element manufacture, unlocking some of the mysteries of the R process of stellar nucleosynthesis and probing the composition of the Earth's deep crust, creating reflection seismology vibroseis data which has helped geologists and follow on mining company prospecting. The project's uncharacteristically large and atmospherically vented Sedan nuclear test also led geologists to determine that Barringer crater was formed as a result of a meteor impact and not from a volcanic eruption, as had earlier been assumed. This became the first crater on Earth definitely proven to be from an impact event. Negative impacts from Project Plowshare's tests generated significant public opposition, which eventually led to the program's termination in 1977. and the deposition of fallout from radioactive material being injected into the atmosphere before underground testing was mandated by treaty.

By exploiting the peaceful uses of the "friendly atom" in medical applications, earth removal, and later in nuclear power plants, the nuclear industry and government sought to allay public fears about nuclear technology and promote the acceptance of nuclear weapons. At the peak of the Atomic Age, the United States Federal government initiated Project Plowshare, involving "peaceful nuclear explosions". The United States Atomic Energy Commission chairman at the time, Lewis Strauss, announced that the Plowshares project was intended to "highlight the peaceful applications of nuclear explosive devices and thereby create a climate of world opinion that is more favorable to weapons development and tests". These tests were to demonstrate that atomic bombs can be used for peaceful purposes, that the atomic sword could be beaten into a plowshare.

Proposed uses for nuclear explosives under Project Plowshare included widening the Panama Canal, constructing a new sea level waterway through Nicaragua nicknamed the Pan Atomic Canal, cutting paths through mountainous areas for highways, and connecting inland river systems. Other proposals involved blasting caverns for water, natural gas, and petroleum storage. Serious consideration was also given to using these explosives for various mining operations. One proposal suggested using nuclear blasts to connect underground aquifers in Arizona. Another plan involved surface blasting on the western slope of California's Sacramento Valley for a water transport project. Project Carryall, proposed in 1963 by the Atomic Energy Commission, the California Division of Highways (now Caltrans), and the Santa Fe Railway, would have used 22 nuclear explosions to excavate a massive roadcut through the Bristol Mountains in the Mojave Desert, to accommodate construction of Interstate 40 and a new rail line. At the end of the program, a major objective was to develop nuclear explosives, and blast techniques, for stimulating the flow of natural gas in "tight" underground reservoir formations. In the 1960s, a proposal was suggested for a modified in situ shale oil extraction process which involved creation of a rubble chimney (a zone in the oil shale formation created by breaking the rock into fragments) using a nuclear explosive. However, this approach was abandoned for a number of technical reasons.

The first Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE) blast was Project Gnome, conducted on December 10, 1961, in a salt bed southeast of Carlsbad, in southeast New Mexico. The explosion released 3.1 kilotons (13 TJ) of energy yield at a depth of which resulted in the formation of a 51.82 m diameter, 24.38 m high cavity. The test had many objectives, the most public of which involved the generation of steam which could then be used to generate electricity. Another objective was the production of useful radioisotopes and their recovery. Yet another experiment involved neutron time of flight physics, and a fourth experiment involved geophysical studies based upon the timed seismic source. Only the last objective was considered a complete success. The blast unintentionally vented radioactive steam while the press watched. The partly developed Project Coach detonation experiment that was to follow adjacent to the Gnome test was then canceled. A number of proof of concept cratering blasts were conducted; including the Buggy shot of five 1 kiloton devices for a channel/trench in Area 30 and the largest being 104 kiloton (435 terajoule) on July 6, 1962, at the north end of Yucca Flats, within the Atomic Energy Commission's Nevada Test Site (NTS) in southern Nevada. The shot, "Sedan", displaced more than of soil and resulted in a radioactive cloud that rose to an altitude of 3657.60 m. The radioactive dust plume headed northeast and then east towards the Mississippi River. and CER Geonuclear Corporation for the Rio Blanco test. The final PNE blast took place on May 17, 1973, under Fawn Creek, north of Grand Junction, Colorado. Three 30 kiloton detonations took place simultaneously at depths of If it had been successful, plans called for the use of hundreds of specialized nuclear explosives in the western Rockies gas fields. The previous two tests had indicated that the produced natural gas would be too radioactive for safe use; the Rio Blanco test found that the three blast cavities had not connected as hoped, and the resulting gas still contained unacceptable levels of radionuclides. By 1974, approximately $82 million had been invested in the nuclear gas stimulation technology program. It was estimated that even after 25 years of production of all the natural gas deemed recoverable, only 15 to 40% of the investment would be recouped. Also, the concept that stove burners in California might soon emit trace amounts of blast radionuclides into family homes did not sit well with the general public. The contaminated gas was never channeled into commercial supply lines. The situation remained so for the next three decades, but a resurgence in Colorado Western slope natural gas drilling has brought resource development closer and closer to the original underground detonations. By mid 2009, 84 drilling permits had been issued within a 3 mile (5 km) radius, with 11 permits within mile of the site.

Operation Plowshare "started with great expectations and high hopes". Planners believed that the projects could be completed safely, but there was less confidence that they could be completed more economically than conventional methods. Moreover, there was insufficient public and Congressional support for the projects. Projects Chariot and Coach were two examples where technical problems and environmental concerns prompted further feasibility studies which took several years, and each project was eventually canceled. Blockquote |Project Gnome vented radioactive steam over the very press gallery that was called to confirm its safety. The next blast, a 104 kiloton detonation at Yucca Flat, Nevada, displaced 12 million tons of soil and resulted in a radioactive dust cloud that rose 12000 feet (3658 m) and plumed toward the Mississippi River. Other consequences – blighted land, relocated communities, tritium contaminated water, radioactivity, and fallout from debris being hurled high into the atmosphere – were ignored and downplayed until the program was terminated in 1977, due in large part to public opposition. Historian Dr. Michael Payne notes that it was primarily changing public opinion, in response to events such as the Cuban Missile Crisis, that drove the protests, court cases and general hostility that ended the oil and gas stimulation efforts. Furthermore, as the years went by without further development and production of nuclear weapons slowed, interest in peaceful applications waned in the 1950s–60s. Cheaper, non nuclear stimulation techniques suitable for most US gas fields were developed in the following years. As a point of comparison, the most successful and profitable nuclear stimulation effort that did not result in customer product contamination issues was the 1976 Project Neva on the Sredne Botuobinsk gas field in the Soviet Union, made possible by multiple cleaner stimulation explosives, favorable rock strata and the possible creation of an underground contaminant storage cavity. The Soviet Union retains the record for the cleanest/lowest fission fraction nuclear devices so far demonstrated. The public records for devices that produced the highest proportion of their yield via fusion only reactions, and therefore created orders of magnitude smaller amounts of long lived fission products as a result, are the USSR's Peaceful nuclear explosions of the 1970s, with the three detonations that excavated part of Pechora–Kama Canal, being cited as 98% fusion each in the Taiga test's three 15 kiloton explosive yield devices, that is, a total fission fraction of 0.3 kilotons in a 15 kt device. In comparison, the next three high fusion yielding devices were all much too high in total explosive yield for oil and gas stimulation: the 50 megaton Tsar Bomba achieved a yield 97% derived from fusion, while in the US, the 9.3 megaton Hardtack Poplar test is reported as 95.2%, and the 4.5 megaton Redwing Navajo test as 95% derived from fusion.

The U. S. conducted 27 PNE shots in conjunction with other, weapons related, test series. + Plowshare nuclear tests Test name Date LocationTypeDepth of BurialMedium Yield (kilotons) Test seriesObjective Gnome December 10, 1961 Carlsbad, New MexicoShaft1,185 ft (361 m)Salt 3 NougatA multipurpose experiment designed to provide data concerning: (1) heat generated from a nuclear explosion; (2) isotopes production; (3) neutron physics; (4) seismic measurements in a salt medium; and (5) design data for developing nuclear devices specifically for peaceful uses. Sedan July 6, 1962 Nevada Test SiteCrater635 ft (194 m)Alluvium 104 StoraxA excavation experiment in alluvium to determine feasibility of using nuclear explosions for large excavation projects, such as harbors and canals; provide data on crater size, radiological safety, seismic effects, and air blast. Anacostia November 27, 1962 Nevada Test SiteShaft747 ft (227.7 m)Tuff 5.2 StoraxA device development experiment to produce heavy elements and provide radiochemical analysis data for the planned Coach Project. Kaweah February 21, 1963 Nevada Test SiteShaft745 ft (227.1 m)Alluvium 3 Dominic I and IIA device development experiment to produce heavy elements and provide technical data for the planned Coach Project. Tornillo October 11, 1963 Nevada Test SiteShaft489 ft (149 m)Alluvium 0.38 NiblickA device development experiment to produce a clean nuclear explosive for excavation applications. Klickitat February 20, 1964 Nevada Test SiteShaft1,616 ft (492.6 m)Tuff 70 NiblickA device development experiment to produce an improved nuclear explosive for excavation applications. Ace June 11, 1964 Nevada Test SiteShaft862 ft (262.7 m)Alluvium 3 NiblickA device development experiment to produce an improved nuclear explosive for excavation applications. Dub June 30, 1964 Nevada Test SiteShaft848 ft (258.5 m)Alluvium 11.7 NiblickA device development experiment to study emplacement techniques. Par October 9, 1964 Nevada Test SiteShaft1,325 ft (403.9 m)Alluvium 38 WhetstoneA device development experiment designed to increase the neutron flux needed for the creation of heavy elements. Handcar November 5, 1964 Nevada Test SiteShaft1,332 ft (406 m)Dolomite (carbonate rock) 12 WhetstoneAn emplacement experiment to study the effects of nuclear explosions in carbonate rock. Sulky November 5, 1964 Nevada Test SiteShaft90 ft (27.4 m)Basalt 0.9 WhetstoneAn excavation experiment to explore cratering mechanics in hard, dry rock and study dispersion patterns of airborne radionuclides released under these conditions. Palanquin April 14, 1965 Nevada Test SiteCrater280 ft (85.3 m)Rhyolite 4.3 WhetstoneAn excavation experiment in hard, dry rock to study dispersion patterns of airborne radionuclides released under these conditions. Templar March 24, 1966 Nevada Test SiteShaft495 ft (150.9 m)Tuff 0.37 FlintlockTo develop an improved nuclear explosive for excavation applications. Vulcan June 25, 1966 Nevada Test SiteShaft1,057 ft (322.2 m)Alluvium 25 FlintlockA heavy element device development test to evaluate neutron flux performance. Saxon July 11, 1966 Nevada Test SiteShaft502 ft (153 m)Tuff 1.2 LatchkeyA device development experiment to improve nuclear explosives for excavation applications. Simms November 6, 1966 Nevada Test SiteShaft650 ft (198.1 m)Alluvium 2.3 LatchkeyA device development experiment to evaluate clean nuclear explosives for excavation applications. Switch June 22, 1967 Nevada Test SiteShaft990 ft (301.8 m)Tuff 3.1 LatchkeyA device development experiment to evaluate clean nuclear explosives for excavation applications. Marvel September 21, 1967 Nevada Test SiteShaft572 ft (174.3 m)Alluvium 2.2 CrosstieAn emplacement experiment to investigate underground phenomenology related to emplacement techniques. Gasbuggy December 10, 1967 Farmington, New MexicoShaft4,240 ft (1,292 m)Sandstone, gas bearing formation 29 CrosstieA gas stimulation experiment to investigate the feasibility of using nuclear explosives to stimulate a low permeability gas field; first Plowshare joint government industry nuclear experiment to evaluate an industrial application. Cabriolet January 26, 1968 Nevada Test SiteCrater170 ft (51.8 m)Rhyolite 2.3 CrosstieAn excavation experiment to explore cratering mechanics in hard, dry rock and study dispersion patterns of airborne radionuclides released under these conditions. Buggy March 12, 1968 Nevada Test SiteCrater135 ft (41.1 m)Basalt5 at 1.1 each CrosstieA five detonation excavation experiment to study the effects and phenomenology of nuclear row charge excavation detonations. Stoddard September 17, 1968 Nevada Test SiteShaft1,535 ft (467.9 m)Tuff 31 BowlineA device development experiment to develop clean nuclear explosives for excavation applications. Schooner December 8, 1968 Nevada Test SiteCrater365 ft (111.3 m)Tuff 30 BowlineAn excavation experiment to study the effects and phenomenology of cratering detonations in hard rock. Rulison September 10, 1969 Grand Valley, ColoradoShaft8,425 ft (2,567.9 m)Sandstone 43 MandrelA gas stimulation experiment to investigate the feasibility of using nuclear explosives to stimulate a low permeability gas field; provide engineering data on the use of nuclear explosions for gas stimulation; on changes in gas production and recovery rates; and on techniques to reduce the radioactive contamination to the gas. Flask Green, Yellow, Red May 26, 1970 Nevada Test SiteShaftGreen, 1736 ft (529.2 m); Yellow, 1,099 ft (335 m); Red, 499 ft (152.1 m)Green, Tuff; Yellow and Red, AlluviumGreen, 105; Yellow, 0.9; Red, 0.4 tons MandrelA three detonation device development experiment to develop improved nuclear explosives for excavation applications. Miniata July 8, 1971 Nevada Test SiteShaft1,735 ft (528.8 m)Tuff 83 GrommetTo develop a clean nuclear explosive for excavation applications. Rio Blanco 1, 2, 3 May 17, 1973 Rifle, ColoradoShaft5,840 ft (1,780 m); 6,230 ft (1,898.9 m); 6,690 ft (2,039.1 m)Sandstone, gas bearing formation3 at 33 each ToggleA gas stimulation experiment to investigate the feasibility of using nuclear explosives to stimulate a low permeability gas field; develop technology for recovering natural gas from reservoirs with very low permeability.