Еврейская мистика: Исторические формы и течения

Different forms of mysticism in Jewish history

Academic study of Jewish mysticism, especially since Gershom Scholem's Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (1941), draws distinctions between different forms of mysticism which were practiced in different eras of Jewish history. Of these, Kabbalah, which emerged in 12th century southwestern Europe, is the most well known, but it is not the only typological form, nor was it the first form which emerged. Among the previous forms were Merkabah mysticism (c. 100 BCE – 1000 CE), and Ashkenazi Hasidim (early 13th century) around the time of the emergence of Kabbalah. Kabbalah means "received tradition", a term which was previously used in other Judaic contexts, but the Medieval Kabbalists adopted it as a term for their own doctrine in order to express the belief that they were not innovating, but were merely revealing the ancient hidden esoteric tradition of the Torah. This issue has been crystalized until today by alternative views on the origin of the Zohar, the main text of Kabbalah, attributed to the circle of its central protagonist Rabbi Shimon Bar Yochai in the 2nd century CE, for opening up the study of Jewish Mysticism. Traditional Kabbalists regard it as originating in Tannaic times, redacting the Oral Torah, so do not make a sharp distinction between Kabbalah and early Rabbinic Jewish mysticism. Academic scholars regard it as a synthesis from the Middle Ages, when it appeared between the 13th 15th centuries, but assimilating and incorporating into itself earlier forms of Jewish mysticism, possible continuations of ancient esoteric traditions, as well as medieval philosophical elements. The theosophical aspect of Kabbalah itself developed through two historical forms: "Medieval/Classic/Zoharic Kabbalah" (c.1175 – 1492 – 1570), and Lurianic Kabbalah (1569  – today) which assimilated Medieval Kabbalah into its wider system and became the basis for modern Jewish Kabbalah. After Luria, two new mystical forms popularised Kabbalah in Judaism: antinomian heretical Sabbatean movements (1666 – 18th century), and Hasidic Judaism (1734 – today). In contemporary Judaism, the only main forms of Jewish mysticism which are practiced are esoteric Lurianic Kabbalah and its later commentaries, the variety of schools of Hasidic Judaism, and Neo Hasidism (incorporating Neo Kabbalah) in non Orthodox Jewish denominations. Two non Jewish syncretic traditions also popularized Judaic Kabbalah through their incorporation as part of general Western esoteric culture from the Renaissance onwards: theological Christian Cabala (c. 15th  – 18th century) which adapted Judaic Kabbalistic doctrine to Christian belief, and its diverging occultist offshoot Hermetic Qabalah (c. 19th century – today) which became a main element in esoteric and magical societies and teachings. As separate traditions of development outside Judaism, drawing from, syncretically adapting, and different in nature and aims from Judaic mysticism, they are not listed on this page.

The Kabbalistic form of Jewish mysticism itself is divided into three general streams: the Theosophical/Speculative Kabbalah (seeking to understand and describe the divine realm), the Meditative/Ecstatic Kabbalah (seeking to achieve a mystical union with God), and the Practical Kabbalah (seeking to theurgically alter the divine realms and the World). These three different, but inter relating, methods or aims of mystical involvement are also found throughout the other pre Kabbalistic and post Kabbalistic stages in Jewish mystical development, as three general typologies. As in Kabbalah, the same text can contain aspects of all three approaches, though the three streams often distill into three separate literatures under the influence of particular exponents or eras. Within Kabbalah, the theosophical tradition is distinguished from many forms of mysticism in other religions by its doctrinal form as a mystical "philosophy" of Gnosis esoteric knowledge. Instead, the tradition of Meditative Kabbalah has similarity of aim, if not form, with usual traditions of general mysticism; to unite the individual intuitively with God. The tradition of theurgic Practical Kabbalah in Judaism, censored and restricted by mainstream Jewish Kabbalists, has similarities with non Jewish Hermetic Qabalah magical Western Esotericism. However, as understood by Jewish Kabbalists, it is censored and forgotten in contemporary times because without the requisite purity and holy motive, it would degenerate into impure and forbidden magic. Consequently, it has formed a minor tradition in Jewish mystical history.

Historical phase Dates Influential developments and texts Early Israelite traditional origins 2nd millennium–800 BCE Prophetic meditation mystical elements in traditional prehistory and early Bible depiction encounters with the divine:Hebrew Patriarchs and MatriarchsCovenant of the piecesJacob's LadderJacob wrestling with the angelMosesBurning bushTheophany at SinaiYahwismEarly Israelite monarchic and cult prophets:Elijah's ascension Prophetic Judaism 800–5th century BCE Prophetic meditation, divine encounter, heavenly host throne of God visions, mystical elements, in the literary Prophetic books of the Bible, from the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah to the Babylonian captivity and Return to Zion:IsaiahEzekielZechariah Apocalyptic Judaism Beginning 5th century BCE300–100 BCEContinuing to 1st century CE Mystical and apocalyptic speculation, heavenly angelology and eschatology, in Second Temple Judaism under foreign rule and oppression, after the social institution era of prophecy closed:Daniel1 EnochBiblical apocrypha pseudepigrapha Mystical elements in Second Temple period sects c. 200 BCE–c. 100 CE Mystical, esoteric and pious elements among the diverse Jewish sects, in the religious syncretism of late Second Temple period Judea and the Diaspora:Second Temple JudaismHasideansEssenesTherapeutaeHellenistic JudaismJewish GnosticismPhilo's Platonic philosophy influence on early ChristianityChristian Jewish early Christian mysticism Early Rabbinic mysticism and mystical elements in classic Rabbinic literature c. 1–200 CE influence to 5th century CE References in exoteric Talmud and Midrash to Tannaic early Rabbinic mystical circles, Maaseh Merkabah – Work of the Chariot exegesis and ascent, Maaseh Bereshit – Work of Creation exegesis. Wider continuing mystical elements in aggadah Rabbinic theology and narratives:Johanan ben Zakai and his disciplesRabbi Akiva(Simeon bar Yochai traditional/pseudepigraphical attribution of later Kabbalist Zohar)Mystical aggadot examples:Four who entered the PardesOven of Akhnai Bath ḳōlTorah: black fire on white fire, God looked in Torah to create WorldShekhinah accompanies Israel in exileThe Messiah at the Gates of Rome Merkabah Hekhalot esoteric texts and methods c. 2nd century–1000 Traditional/pseudepigraphical/anonymous esoteric Merkabah mysticism Throne and Hekhalot Palaces ascent literature and methods. Text protagonists are early Tannaic Rabbis, though texts academically dated variously from Talmudic 100–500 to Gaonic 400–800 periods, and sectarian/rabbinic origins debated:Earlier texts:3 EnochHekhalot Rabbati (The Greater Palaces)Hekhalot Zutari (The Lesser Palaces)Merkavah Rabbah (The Great Chariot)Later texts:Shi'ur Qomah (Divine Dimensions)Mystical speculations of the Geonim Influence of Post Biblical Jewish mythology and folklore on mysticism c. early CE early modernity Jewish mysticism, from early Hekhalot texts, through medieval spirituality, to the folk religion storytelling of East European shtetls, absorbed motifs of Jewish mythology and folklore through Aggadic creative imagination, reception of earlier Jewish apocrypha traditions, and absorption of outside cultural influences. Later Midrash and smaller Midrashim evolve towards the ethos of Kabbalistic mysticism:LilithTheliEstriesZizKefitzat haderechEvil eyeDybbukSuperstition in Judaism "Practical Kabbalah" white magic c. early CE–early modernity Elite Jewish use of white magic (direct spiritual practices to influence the material realm, or to gain spiritual ascent) by mystics, colloquially called "Practical Kabbalah", drawing from syncretically collected traditions of the Talmudic period to early modernity. Distinguished from Kabbalistic theurgy (influencing solely the supernal realm of inter Divine attributes), from Natural magic interpretations of Kabbalah, and from popular folk magic:Magical elements in Merkabah mysticism Hekhalot literature ascentsUse of Sefer Yetzirah for magicSefer Raziel HaMalakhGolemAmuletsJoseph della Reina 1400s attempt to hasten the messiah16th–19th century European Baal Shem Proto Kabbalistic 200–600 Maaseh Bereshit – Creation speculation text. Describes 10 sephirot, though without their significance to later Kabbalah. Received rationalist interpretations before becoming a source text for Kabbalah:Sefer Yetzirah (Book of Formation) Mystical elements in Medieval Jewish philosophy and culture 11th–13th centuries Mystical elements in the thought of Medieval rationalist and anti rationalist Jewish philosophical theologians:Solomon ibn Gabirol Jewish NeoplatonismIsaac Israeli ben Solomon Jewish NeoplatonismAbraham ibn Ezra Jewish NeoplatonismJudah Halevi anti rationalismMoses Maimonides Neoplatonised AristotelianismMystical elements in the efflorescence of poetry in Moorish Spanish Jewish culture and Christian Spain Jewish Sufi piety 11th to 15th centuries Jewish mystical piety, influenced by Islamic Sufism, systemising meditative experiential practices:Bahya ibn Paquda 11th century – Chovot HaLevavot (Duties of the Heart)Abraham Maimonides and the "Jewish Sufis" of Old Cairo 13th–15th century Early Kabbalah c. 1174–1200 Emergence of mystical mythic theosophical theurgic Kabbalah among the Hachmei Provence in Southern France (Occitania). The Bahir, regarded in academia as the first Kabbalistic work, incorporates an earlier source text:Sefer HaBahir (Book of Brightness)Abraham ben David of Posquières (The Raavad) critic of MaimonidesIsaac the Blind"Iyyun" and "Unique Cherub" mystical circles of unknown provenance Chassidei Ashkenaz c. 1150–1250 Mystical ethical piety and speculative theological theory in Ashkenaz Germany. Shaped by Merkabah Hekhalot texts, Practical Kabbalah magical elements, mystical reinterpretation of early medieval Jewish philosophy, Rhineland Crusader persecutions and German monastic values. Established a supreme value for devotional selflessness in Judaism:Samuel of SpeyerJudah of Regensburg – Sefer Hasidim (Book of the Pious)Eleazar of Worms Medieval Kabbalah development c. 1200–1492 Alternative philosophical vs. mythological interpretations of Theosophical Kabbalah: "Neoplatonic" quasi philosophical hierarchy, and Jewish "Gnostic" mythological interest in sexual theurgic and demonic dualism motifs. Centred in Spain's Kabbalistic golden age:Early 13th century Girona neoplatonic school:Azriel of GeronaNahmanides (Ramban) – Torah commentary13th century Castile gnostic school:Treatise on the Left EmanationThe Zohar in Spain from c.1286:Zohar literature (Book of Splendour) late 1200s–1400s. Castile's gnostic culmination. Canonised as Kabbalah's central poetic visionary scripture. Later strata (Ra'aya Meheimna, Idrot) are most esoteric and anthropomorphic. Subsequent Zohar exegesis dominated other Kabbalah traditions. Possible Kabbalists in Zohar circle:Moses de LeónTodros ben Joseph Abulafiaand othersKabbalistic scholarship:Joseph Gikatilla – Shaarei Orah (Gates of Light) c.1290 SpainSefer HaTemunah (Book of the Figure) 13th–14th century influential doctrine in Kabbalah of Cosmic Cycles, later rejected by Cordovero and LuriaBahya ben Asher Torah commentary Medieval Ecstatic Kabbalah 13th–16th centuries Medieval Meditative Kabbalah developed its own traditions. Abraham Abulafia's Ecstatic Prophetic Kabbalah, his Maimonidean alternative competitor to Theosophical Kabbalah, embodies the non Zoharic ecstatic stream in Spanish Kabbalism. Re imagining Judaism's prophetic techniques, it remained marginal to mainstream Kabbalah, but established a following in east Mediterranean:Abulafian Prophetic Kabbalah school:Abraham Abulafia Mediterranean area late 13th centuryJudah Albotini Jerusalem 15th–16th centuryOther meditative methods:Isaac of Acco 14th centuryJoseph Tzayach Damascus and Jerusalem 16th century Renaissance era Kabbalah influences c. 1450s 1600s Influence of the European Renaissance in crystalising philosophical and magical interpretations of Judaic Kabbalah, and fusions of philosophy with Kabbalah in late medieval early modern Jewish philosophy:Italian Jews' historical openness to general cultureFlorence centre of Renaissance humanism Perennial philosophy influences on Jewish philosophyYohanan Alemanno culmination of Natural magic interpretations of Kabbalah, interpreting Judaism drawing down Divine influx to the material world. Influence on 16th century systemisations of Kabbalah, and later HasidismInfluence on Pico della Mirandola, Christian Cabala and Western esotericismPlatonist influenced fusions of Kabbalah with Jewish philosophy:Abraham Cohen de Herrera early 1600sOther mystical elements in early modern Jewish philosophy:Judah Leon Abravanel (Leone Ebreo) Portuguese Italian early 1500s "Dialogues of Love" Platonism Post 1492 and Safed Kabbalah 16th century Transition from esoteric Medieval Kabbalism to Kabbalah as a national messianic doctrine, after 1492 Expulsion from Spain exile. Judaic renaissance of Palestine:Joseph Taitazak SalonicaSolomon Molcho Jewish Messiah claimantMeir ibn Gabbai 16th century early systemiserThe 2 definitive systemisations of Kabbalah, in latter 1500s Safed Galilee:1 Quasi Rational: Moses Cordovero (Ramak) – Pardes Rimonim. Cordoverian systemisation of Medieval Kabbalah until 15702 Supra Rational: Isaac Luria (the Ari) – new post Medieval Lurianic systemisation taught 1570–1572Other Kabbalists of the Safed mystical and scholarly renaissance:Joseph Karo central legalist and mystic diaristShlomo AlkabetzHayim Vital main Lurianic compiler and other writingsSafed Meditative Kabbalah: Vital – Shaarei Kedusha (Gates of Holiness), Luria – Yichudim method Maharal's mystical theology 16th century Medieval Kabbalah expressed in non Kabbalistic philosophical theology:Judah Loew (Maharal) Prague Early Lurianic and post medieval Kabbalism 16th mid–18th centuries Esoteric Lurianism, the second of Kabbalah's two systems of theosophy after Medieval Cordoverian, incorporating dynamic myth of exile and redemption in divinity taught by Isaac Luria 1570–1572. Other post medieval popularising/ethical Kabbalah based itself on the more exoteric system of Moses Cordovero:Disciples compile Kitvei Ari Lurianic thought:Hayim Vital – Etz Hayim (Tree of Life)Israel Sarug spread Lurianism in EuropeLurianic exegesis and meditative methods dominated other post medieval Kabbalah trendsPopularising Kabbalistic Musar and homiletic literature 1550s–1750s:Moses Cordovero – Tomer Devorah (Palm Tree of Deborah)Eliyahu de Vidas – Reshit Chochmah (Beginning of Wisdom)Kav ha YasharIsaiah Horowitz (Shelah) – Shnei Luchot HaBrit (Tablets of the Covenant) Central EuropeKabbalistic renewal and scholarship:Abraham AzulaiChaim ibn Attar (Or ha Hayim) Torah commentaryMoshe Chaim Luzzatto (Ramchal) Italian early 18th century mystical messianic circle, new public dissemination and revelation of KabbalahJoseph Ergas Sabbatean movements 1665–c. 19th century Kabbalistic messianic mystical heresies developing antinomian new theologies from Zoharic and Lurianic Kabbalah. Theological spectrum from mild to strong:Sabbateans:Sabbatai Zevi messianic claimant Islamic convertNathan of Gaza Sabbatean prophetModerate crypto and radical antinomian factionsEmden Eybeschutz controversy and Rabbinic excommunication of SabbateansFrankism:Jacob Frank messianic claimant pseudo Christian convert, late 18th century nihilism Early and formative Hasidic Judaism 1730s–1850s Eastern European mystical revival movement, popularising and psychologising Kabbalah through Panentheism and the Tzadik mystical leader. Neutralised messianic danger expressed in Sabbateanism:Pre Hasidic origins:Baal Shem Eastern Europe Practical KabbalistsTzadikim Nistarim mythologyEarly Hasidism:Israel ben Eliezer (Baal Shem Tov, Besht) founder of HasidismDov Ber of Mezeritch (The Magid) systemiser and architect of HasidismJacob Joseph of PolonneLevi Yitzhak of BerditchevMain Hasidic schools of thought (mystics after 1850s shown later):Mainstream Hasidic Tzadikism:Elimelech of Lizhensk – Noam Elimelech (Pleasantness of Elimelech)Yaakov Yitzchak of Lublin (The Chozeh)Chabad intellectual Hasidism – Russia:Shneur Zalman of Liadi – Tanya (Likutei Amarim Collected Words) theorist of HasidismAaron of StaroselyeBreslav imaginative Hasidism – Ukraine:Nachman of Breslav – Likutei Moharan (Collected teachings)Nathan of BreslavPeshischa Kotzk introspective Hasidism – Poland, mystical offshoot from:Mordechai Yosef Leiner of Izbica – Mei Hashiloach (Waters of Shiloah), personal illuminationHasidic storytelling:Shivchei HaBesht (Praises of the Besht) published 1814Sippurei Ma'asiyot (Stories that were told) Nachman of Breslav's 13 mystical tales 1816 Later traditional Lurianic Kabbalah 18th century–today Traditionalist esoteric interpretations and practice of Lurianic Kabbalah from 18th century until today, apart from Hasidic adaptions:Brody Kloiz and pre Hasidic introverted Hasidim kabbalistic circles in Eastern Europe. Renewed esotericism in response to Sabbatean heresyMitnagdic Lithuanian non Hasidic Kabbalah:Elijah ben Shlomo Zalman (Vilna Gaon, Gra) figurehead of Mitnagdim 18th centuryChaim of Volozhin – Nefesh HaChaim (Soul of Life) theorist of Mitnagdism,Wissenschaft des Judentums early critical historical scholars of jewish mystical texts:Adolf Jellinek 1800s Austrian Reform Rabbi scholarGerman Idealist rational mystical elements in modern Jewish philosophy:Nachman Krochmal Galicia early 1800s, Jewish HegelianismMystical elements and influences in Post 1880s Jewish political movements and secular Jewish culture:Secular Yiddish Renaissance mystical themes in Yiddish literatureJewish Autonomism cultural folkism and Jewish folkloristsCultural Zionism National revival secular spiritualityHayim Nahman Bialik, Israel's National Poet, and mystical influences on secular Hebrew literatureFusions of Kabbalah and Hasidism with Jewish anarchism Neo Hasidism and Neo Kabbalah c. 1900–today Modernist and Non Orthodox Jewish denominations' adapted spiritual teaching of Kabbalistic and Hasidic theology and mysticism to modern critical thought and interpretations:Early 20th century:Martin Buber from existential Neo Hasidism to dialogical encounterHillel Zeitlin Philosophical Neo HasidismErich Neumann Jungian interpretation of Hasidic Kabbalah and Depth psychologyPost War and contemporary:Abraham Joshua Heschel Neo traditional aggadic JudaismZalman Schachter Shalomi Jewish RenewalArthur Green Reconstructionist academic and mystical theologianLawrence Kushner Reform Neo KabbalahGershon Winkler shamanic JudaismInfluence on modern and postmodern Jewish philosophy:Jewish existentialism subjective experience of Divine relationshipPostmodern Jewish philosophy narratives of meaningIndependent scholarship:Sanford Drob – The New KabbalahZevi Slavin – Seekers of Unity Zionist and monistic mystical thought of Rav Kook c. 1910s–today Innovative teachings and influence of Abraham Isaac Kook, pre State Chief Rabbi of Mandate Palestine and poetic mystic. Harmonistic unity of religion and secularism, halakha and aggadah, activism and quietism, developed from Kabbalistic, Hasidic, philosophic and secular thought:Abraham Isaac Kook Neo Hasidic monistic poetic mysticism beyond Kabbalah and PhilosophyAtchalta De'Geulah Religious ZionismRav Kook's partial influence on Modern Orthodox Judaism Academic study of Jewish mysticism c. 1920s–today Critical historical study of Jewish mystical texts began in 19th century, but Gershom Scholem's school in the mid 20th century founded the methodological disciple in academia, returning mysticism to a central position in Jewish historiography and Jewish studies departments. Select historian examples:First generation:Gershom Scholem discipline founder Hebrew UniversityAlexander Altmann American initiatorPresent generation, multi disciplinary approaches:Moshe Idel Hebrew University revisionismElliot R. Wolfson feminist contributions