Пермакультура: Подходы к землепользованию и проектированию поселений

Approach to agriculture and land management

Permaculture is an approach to land management and settlement design that adopts arrangements observed in flourishing natural ecosystems. It includes a set of design principles derived using whole systems thinking. It applies these principles in fields such as regenerative agriculture, town planning, rewilding, and community resilience. The term was coined in 1978 by Bill Mollison and David Holmgren, who formulated the concept in opposition to modern industrialized methods, instead adopting a more traditional or "natural" approach to agriculture. Smith saw the world as an inter related whole and suggested mixed systems of trees with understory crops. This book inspired individuals such as Toyohiko Kagawa who pioneered forest farming in Japan in the 1930s. Another pioneer, George Washington Carver, advocated for practices now common in permaculture, including the use of crop rotation to restore nitrogen to the soil and repair damaged farmland, in his work at the Tuskegee Institute between 1896 and his death in 1947. In his 1964 book Water for Every Farm, the Australian agronomist and engineer P. A. Yeomans advanced a definition of permanent agriculture as one that can be sustained indefinitely. Yeomans introduced both an observation based approach to land use in Australia in the 1940s and in the 1950s the Keyline Design as a way of managing the supply and distribution of water in semi arid regions. Other early influences include Stewart Brand's works, Ruth Stout and Esther Deans, who pioneered no dig gardening, and Masanobu Fukuoka who, in the late 1930s in Japan, began advocating no till orchards and gardens and natural farming. [[File:Bill Mollison 01. jpg|thumb|left|Bill Mollison, who has been described as the "father of permaculture," cites Aboriginal Tasmanian belief systems as an inspiration of the practice. In their view, industrialized methods were highly dependent on non renewable resources, and were additionally poisoning land and water, reducing biodiversity, and removing billions of tons of topsoil from previously fertile landscapes. They responded with permaculture. This term was first made public with the publication of their 1978 book Permaculture One. Following the publication of Permaculture One, Mollison responded to widespread enthusiasm for the work by traveling and teaching a three week program that became known as the Permaculture Design Course. It addressed the application of permaculture design to growing in major climatic and soil conditions, to the use of renewable energy and natural building methods, and to "invisible structures" of human society. He found ready audiences in Australia, New Zealand, the USA, Britain, and Europe, and from 1985 also reached the Indian subcontinent and southern Africa. By the early 1980s, the concept had broadened from agricultural systems towards sustainable human habitats and at the 1st Intl. Permaculture Convergence, a gathering of graduates of the PDC held in Australia, the curriculum was formalized and its format shortened to two weeks. After Permaculture One, Mollison further refined and developed the ideas while designing hundreds of properties. This led to the 1988 publication of his global reference work, Permaculture: A Designers Manual. Mollison encouraged graduates to become teachers and set up their own institutes and demonstration sites. Critics suggest that this success weakened permaculture's social aspirations of moving away from industrial social forms. They argue that the self help model (akin to franchising) has had the effect of creating market focused social relationships that the originators initially opposed.

The edge effect in ecology is the increased diversity that results when two habitats meet. Permaculturists argue that these places can be highly productive. An example of this is a coast. Where land and sea meet is a rich area that meets a disproportionate percentage of human and animal needs. This idea is reflected in permacultural designs by using spirals in herb gardens, or creating ponds that have wavy undulating shorelines rather than a simple circle or oval (thereby increasing the amount of edge for a given area). On the other hand, in a keyhole bed, edges are minimized to avoid wasting space and effort.

Mulch is a protective cover placed over soil. Mulch material includes leaves, cardboard, and wood chips. These absorb rain, reduce evaporation, provide nutrients, increase soil organic matter, create habitat for soil organisms, suppress weed growth and seed germination, moderate diurnal temperature swings, protect against frost, and reduce erosion. is a gardening technique that attempts to mimic the leaf cover that is found on forest floors.

Edward Faulkner's 1943 book Plowman's Folly, King's 1946 pamphlet "Is Digging Necessary? ", A. Guest's 1948 book "Gardening without Digging", and Fukuoka's "Do Nothing Farming" all advocated forms of no till or no dig gardening. No till gardening seeks to minimise disturbance to the soil community so as to maintain soil structure and organic matter.

Low effort permaculture favours perennial crops which do not require tilling and planting every year. Annual crops inevitably require more cultivation. They can be incorporated into permaculture by using traditional techniques such as crop rotation, intercropping, and companion planting so that pests and weeds of individual annual crop species do not build up, and minerals used by specific crop plants do not become successively depleted. Companion planting aims to make use of beneficial interactions between species of cultivated plants. Such interactions include pest control, pollination, providing habitat for beneficial insects, and maximizing use of space; all of these may help to increase productivity.

thumb|Rainwater collection is a common practice of permaculture. Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and storage of rainwater for reuse before it runs off or reaches the aquifer. It has been used to provide drinking water, water for livestock, and water for irrigation, as well as other typical uses. Rainwater collected from the roofs of houses and local institutions can make an important contribution to the availability of drinking water. It can supplement the water table and increase urban greenery. Water collected from the ground, sometimes from areas which are specially prepared for this purpose, is called stormwater harvesting. Greywater is wastewater generated from domestic activities such as laundry, dishwashing, and bathing, which can be recycled for uses such as landscape irrigation and constructed wetlands. Greywater is largely sterile, but not potable (drinkable). Keyline design is a technique for maximizing the beneficial use of water resources. It was developed in Australia by farmer and engineer P. A. Yeomans. Keyline refers to a contour line extending in both directions from a keypoint. Plowing above and below the keyline provides a watercourse that directs water away from a purely downhill course to reduce erosion and encourage infiltration. It is used in designing drainage systems.

thumb|A herb spiral provides varied conditions in a small space for multiple species to grow together. Space can be saved in permaculture gardens with techniques such as herb spirals which group plants closely together. A herb spiral, invented by Mollison, is a round cairn of stones packed with earth at the base and sand higher up; sometimes there is a small pond on the south side (in the northern hemisphere). The result is a series of microclimate zones, wetter at the base, drier at the top, warmer and sunnier on the south side, cooler and drier to the north. Each herb is planted in the zone best suited to it.

Masanobu Fukuoka experimented with no pruning methods on his family farm in Japan, finding that trees which were never pruned could grow well, whereas previously pruned trees often died when allowed to grow without further pruning. He felt that this reflected the Tao philosophy of Wú wéi, meaning no action against nature or "do nothing" farming. He claimed yields comparable to intensive arboriculture with pruning and chemical fertilisation.

thumb|South Central Farm was one of the largest urban gardens in the United States before its demolition in 2006. The fundamental element of suburban and urban permaculture is the efficient utilization of space. Wildfire journal suggests using methods such as the keyhole garden which require little space. Neighbors can collaborate to increase the scale of transformation, using sites such as recreation centers, neighborhood associations, city programs, faith groups, and schools. Columbia, an ecovillage in Portland, Oregon, consisting of 37 apartment condominiums, influenced its neighbors to implement permaculture principles, including in front yard gardens. Suburban permaculture sites such as one in Eugene, Oregon, include rainwater catchment, edible landscaping, removing paved driveways, turning a garage into living space, and changing a south side patio into passive solar. Vacant lot farms are community managed farm sites, but are often seen by authorities as temporary rather than permanent. For example, Los Angeles' South Central Farm (1994–2006), one of the largest urban gardens in the United States, was bulldozed with approval from property owner Ralph Horowitz, despite community protest. The possibilities and challenges for suburban or urban permaculture vary with the built environment around the world. For example, land is used more ecologically in Jaisalmer, India than in American planned cities such as Los Angeles: When an attachment substrate is provided in association with such an upwelling, and kelp sporophytes are present, a kelp forest ecosystem can be established (since kelp needs the cool temperatures and abundant dissolved macronutrients present in such an environment). Microalgae proliferate as well. Marine forest habitat is beneficial for many fish species, and the kelp is a renewable resource for food, animal feed, medicines and various other commercial products. It is also a powerful tool for carbon fixation. The upwelling can be powered by renewable energy on location. Vertical mixing has been reduced due to ocean stratification effects associated with climate change. Reduced vertical mixing and marine heatwaves have decimated seaweed ecosystems in many areas. Marine permaculture mitigates this by restoring some vertical mixing and preserves these important ecosystems. By preserving and regenerating habitat offshore on a platform, marine permaculture employs natural processes to regenerate marine life.

Trademark and copyright disputes surround the word permaculture. Mollison's books claimed on the copyright page, "The contents of this book and the word PERMACULTURE are copyright." Eventually Mollison acknowledged that he was mistaken and that no copyright protection existed. In 2000, Mollison's U. S. based Permaculture Institute sought a service mark for the word permaculture when used in educational services such as conducting classes, seminars, or workshops. The service mark would have allowed Mollison and his two institutes to set enforceable guidelines regarding how permaculture could be taught and who could teach it, particularly with relation to the PDC, despite the fact that he had been certifying teachers since 1993. This attempt failed and was abandoned in 2001. Mollison's application for trademarks in Australia for the terms "Permaculture Design Course" and "Permaculture Design" was withdrawn in 2003. In 2009 he sought a trademark for "Permaculture: A Designers' Manual" and "Introduction to Permaculture", the names of two of his books. These applications were withdrawn in 2011. Australia has never authorized a trademark for the word permaculture.

Permaculture has been criticised as being poorly defined and unscientific. Critics have pushed for less reliance on anecdote and extrapolation from ecological first principles, in favor of peer reviewed research to substantiate productivity claims and to clarify methodology. Peter Harper from the Centre for Alternative Technology suggests that most of what passes for permaculture has no relevance to real problems. Julius Krebs and Sonja Bach argue in Sustainability that there is "scientific evidence for all twelve [of Holmgren's] principles". In 2017, Ferguson and Lovell presented sociological and demographic data from 36 American farms that described themselves as practising permaculture. The farms were well diversified, with a median effective number of enterprises per farm of 3.6 (out of a maximum of 6 in the analysis method used). The farms used a variety of business strategies: they clustered into small mixed farms, integrated producers of perennial and animal crops, mixes of production and services, livestock, and service based businesses. Median household income ($38,750) was less than either national median household income ($51,017) or national median farm household income ($68,680).