Введение
Язык банту Уганды
Ганда или луганда (/l//uː/'/ɡ//æ//n//d//ə/ looGANdə, олуганда) — язык банту, на котором говорят в регионе Африканских Великих озёр. Это один из основных языков Уганды, на котором говорят более 5,56 миллиона баганда и других людей, преимущественно в центральной Уганде, включая столицу страны Кампалу. Типологически это агглютинативный тональный язык с порядком слов «подлежащее — сказуемое — дополнение» и номинативно-аккузативным морфосинтаксическим строем. На нём говорит как минимум 5,6 миллиона носителей языка в регионе Буганда и 5,4 миллиона владеющих им как вторым языком в различных регионах, особенно в крупных городах, таких как Мбале, Тороро, Джинджа, Гулу, Мбарара, Хойма, Касесе и т. д. Луганда является де-факто языком национальной идентичности Уганды, поскольку это самый распространённый язык Уганды, используемый преимущественно в торговле в городских районах. Он также является самым распространённым неофициальным языком в столице Руанды, Кигали. Как второй язык, он следует за английским и предшествует суахили в Уганде. Лусога, язык, на котором говорят в Бусоге к востоку от Буганды, очень тесно связан с лугандой. Эти два языка почти взаимопонятны и имеют оценочную лексическую схожесть от 82% до 86%.
Фоналогия
Примечательной особенностью фонологии луганда является наличие удвоенных согласных и различия между долгими и краткими гласными. Носители языка обычно рассматривают удвоение согласных и удлинение гласных как два проявления одного и того же эффекта, который они просто называют "удвоением" или "подчеркиванием". Луганда также является тональным языком, и изменение высоты тона слога может изменять значение слова. Например, слово *kabaka* означает "король", если все три слога произносятся с одинаковой высотой тона. Если первый слог высокий, значение меняется на "маленький ловит" (3-е лицо, ед. число, наст. время, класс VI от *baka* – "ловить"). Эта особенность делает луганду сложным языком для изучения носителями языков, не имеющих тона. Не носителям языка приходится усваивать вариации тона путем длительного прослушивания. В отличие от некоторых других языков банту, в луганде нет тенденции к удлинению предпоследних гласных; напротив, они очень часто остаются краткими, как, например, во втором слоге названия города Кампала – *Kámpalâ*, где второй гласный в луганде произносится кратко.
Тон
Луганда — тональный язык с тремя тонами: высоким, низким и понижающимся. Однако в луганда нет слогов с повышающимся тоном, поскольку они автоматически становятся [низкими]. Согласно одному анализу, тоны переносятся на моры. В языке луганда короткий гласный имеет одну мору, а длинный гласный — две моры. Двойной или преназализированный согласный имеет одну мору. Согласный + полугласный (например, *gw* или *ly*) также имеет одну мору. У гласного, за которым следует преназализированный согласный, есть две моры, включая одну, принадлежащую преназализированному согласному. Первый гласный слов, таких как *ekitabo* ‘книга’, считается, что имеет одну мору, хотя такие гласные часто произносятся длинными. Ни один слог не может иметь более двух морей. Падающие тоны можно услышать в слогах, которые имеют две моры, например, с длинной гласной (*okukóoká* ‘плакать’), с короткой гласной, за которой следует двойной согласный (*okubôbbá* ‘пульсировать’).
According to one analysis, tones are carried on morae. In Luganda, a short vowel has one mora and a long vowel has two morae. A geminate or prenasalised consonant has one mora. A consonant + semivowel (e. g. gw or ly) also has one mora. A vowel followed by a prenasalised consonant has two morae including the one belonging to the prenasalised consonant. The initial vowel of words like ekitabo 'book' is considered to have one mora, even though such vowels are often pronounced long. No syllable can have more than two morae. Falling tones can be heard in syllables which have two morae, e. g. those with a long vowel (okukóoká 'to cry'), those with a short vowel followed by a geminate consonant (okubôbbá 'to throb'),
Although words like ekitabo are theoretically toneless, they are generally subject to a tone raising rule whereby all but the first mora acquire a high tone. Thus ekitabo 'book' is pronounced and ssomero 'school' is pronounced (where the long consonant counts as the first mora). These tones added to toneless words are called 'phrasal tones'. The tone raising rule also applies to the toneless syllables at the end of words like eddwâliro 'hospital' and túgenda 'we are going', provided that there is at least one low toned mora after the lexical tone. When this happens, the high tones which follow the low tone are slightly lower than the one which precedes it. However, there are certain contexts, such as when a toneless word is used as the subject of a sentence or before a numeral, when this tone raising rule does not apply: Masindi kibúga 'Masindi is a city'; ebitabo kkúmi 'ten books'. In a sentence, the lexical tones (that is, the high tones of individual words) tend to fall gradually in a series of steps from high to low. For example, in the sentence kye kibúga ekikúlu mu Ugáńda 'it is the chief city in Uganda', the lexical high tones of the syllables bú, kú and gá stand out and gradually descend in pitch, the toneless syllables in between being lower. This phenomenon is called 'downdrift'. However, there are certain types of phrase, notably those in the form 'noun + of + noun', or 'verb + location', where downdrift does not occur, and instead all the syllables in between the two lexical high tones link together into a 'plateau', in which all the vowels have tones of equal height, for example mu maséréngétá gá Úgáńda 'in the south of Uganda' or kírí mú Úgáńda 'it is in Uganda'. Plateauing also occurs within a word, as in Kámpálâ (see above). A plateau cannot be formed between a lexical tone and a phrasal tone; so in the sentence kíri mu Bunyóró 'it is in Bunyoro' there is downdrift, since the tones of Bunyóró are phrasal. But a phrasal tone can and frequently does form a plateau with a following high tone of either sort. So in abántú mú Úgáńda 'people in Uganda', there is a plateau from the phrasal tone of tú to the lexical tone of gá, and in túgendá mú lúgúúdó 'we are going into the street', there is a plateau from the phrasal tone of ndá to the phrasal tone of dó. Again there are certain exceptions; for example, there is no plateau before the words ono 'this' or bonnâ 'all': muntú onó 'this person', abántú bonnâ 'all the people'. Prefixes sometimes change the tones in a word. For example, Baganda 'they are Baganda' has LHHL, but adding the initial vowel a gives Abaganda 'Baganda people' with LLHLH. (Here, long vowels are transcribed double rather than with the length mark , to allow for tones to be written on each mora.) Different verb tenses have different tonal patterns. The tones of verbs are made more complicated by the fact that some verbs have a high tone on the first syllable of the root, while others do not, and also by the fact that the sequence HH generally becomes HL by a rule called Meeussen's rule. Thus asóma means 'he reads', but when the toneless prefix a 'he/she' is replaced by the high toned prefix bá 'they', instead of básóma it becomes básomá 'they read'. The tones of verbs in relative clauses and in negative sentences differ from those in ordinary positive sentences and the addition of an object marker such as mu 'him' adds further complications. In addition to lexical tones, phrasal tones, and the tonal patterns of tenses, there are also intonational tones in Luganda, for example, tones of questions. One rather unexpected phenomenon for English speakers is that if a yes–no question ends in a toneless word, instead of a rise, there is a sharp drop in pitch, e. g. lúnó lúgúúdò? 'is this a road? '.
Хотя слова, такие как *ekitabo*, теоретически безтоновые, они обычно подчиняются правилу повышения тона, при котором все, кроме первой моры, приобретают высокий тон. Таким образом, *ekitabo* ‘книга’ произносится [эктибо], а *ssomero* ‘школа’ произносится [сэсомэро] (где длинный согласный считается первой морой). Эти тоны, добавленные к безтоновым словам, называются «фразовыми тонами». Правило повышения тона также применяется к безтоновым слогам в конце таких слов, как *eddwâliro* ‘больница’ и *túgenda* ‘мы идем’, при условии, что после лексического тона есть по крайней мере одна низкотоновая мора. Когда это происходит, высокие тоны, следующие за низким тоном, немного ниже, чем тот, который его предшествует. Однако существуют определенные контексты, например, когда безтоновое слово используется в качестве подлежащего предложения или перед числительным, когда это правило повышения тона не применяется: *Masindi kibúga* ‘Масинди — город’; *ebitabo kkúmi* ‘десять книг’.
According to one analysis, tones are carried on morae. In Luganda, a short vowel has one mora and a long vowel has two morae. A geminate or prenasalised consonant has one mora. A consonant + semivowel (e. g. gw or ly) also has one mora. A vowel followed by a prenasalised consonant has two morae including the one belonging to the prenasalised consonant. The initial vowel of words like ekitabo 'book' is considered to have one mora, even though such vowels are often pronounced long. No syllable can have more than two morae. Falling tones can be heard in syllables which have two morae, e. g. those with a long vowel (okukóoká 'to cry'), those with a short vowel followed by a geminate consonant (okubôbbá 'to throb'),
Although words like ekitabo are theoretically toneless, they are generally subject to a tone raising rule whereby all but the first mora acquire a high tone. Thus ekitabo 'book' is pronounced and ssomero 'school' is pronounced (where the long consonant counts as the first mora). These tones added to toneless words are called 'phrasal tones'. The tone raising rule also applies to the toneless syllables at the end of words like eddwâliro 'hospital' and túgenda 'we are going', provided that there is at least one low toned mora after the lexical tone. When this happens, the high tones which follow the low tone are slightly lower than the one which precedes it. However, there are certain contexts, such as when a toneless word is used as the subject of a sentence or before a numeral, when this tone raising rule does not apply: Masindi kibúga 'Masindi is a city'; ebitabo kkúmi 'ten books'. In a sentence, the lexical tones (that is, the high tones of individual words) tend to fall gradually in a series of steps from high to low. For example, in the sentence kye kibúga ekikúlu mu Ugáńda 'it is the chief city in Uganda', the lexical high tones of the syllables bú, kú and gá stand out and gradually descend in pitch, the toneless syllables in between being lower. This phenomenon is called 'downdrift'. However, there are certain types of phrase, notably those in the form 'noun + of + noun', or 'verb + location', where downdrift does not occur, and instead all the syllables in between the two lexical high tones link together into a 'plateau', in which all the vowels have tones of equal height, for example mu maséréngétá gá Úgáńda 'in the south of Uganda' or kírí mú Úgáńda 'it is in Uganda'. Plateauing also occurs within a word, as in Kámpálâ (see above). A plateau cannot be formed between a lexical tone and a phrasal tone; so in the sentence kíri mu Bunyóró 'it is in Bunyoro' there is downdrift, since the tones of Bunyóró are phrasal. But a phrasal tone can and frequently does form a plateau with a following high tone of either sort. So in abántú mú Úgáńda 'people in Uganda', there is a plateau from the phrasal tone of tú to the lexical tone of gá, and in túgendá mú lúgúúdó 'we are going into the street', there is a plateau from the phrasal tone of ndá to the phrasal tone of dó. Again there are certain exceptions; for example, there is no plateau before the words ono 'this' or bonnâ 'all': muntú onó 'this person', abántú bonnâ 'all the people'. Prefixes sometimes change the tones in a word. For example, Baganda 'they are Baganda' has LHHL, but adding the initial vowel a gives Abaganda 'Baganda people' with LLHLH. (Here, long vowels are transcribed double rather than with the length mark , to allow for tones to be written on each mora.) Different verb tenses have different tonal patterns. The tones of verbs are made more complicated by the fact that some verbs have a high tone on the first syllable of the root, while others do not, and also by the fact that the sequence HH generally becomes HL by a rule called Meeussen's rule. Thus asóma means 'he reads', but when the toneless prefix a 'he/she' is replaced by the high toned prefix bá 'they', instead of básóma it becomes básomá 'they read'. The tones of verbs in relative clauses and in negative sentences differ from those in ordinary positive sentences and the addition of an object marker such as mu 'him' adds further complications. In addition to lexical tones, phrasal tones, and the tonal patterns of tenses, there are also intonational tones in Luganda, for example, tones of questions. One rather unexpected phenomenon for English speakers is that if a yes–no question ends in a toneless word, instead of a rise, there is a sharp drop in pitch, e. g. lúnó lúgúúdò? 'is this a road? '.
В предложении лексические тона (то есть высокие тоны отдельных слов) имеют тенденцию постепенно падать в серии шагов от высокого к низкому. Например, в предложении *kye kibúga ekikúlu mu Ugáńda* ‘это главный город в Уганде’, лексические высокие тоны слогов *bú*, *kú* и *gá* выделяются и постепенно снижаются в тональности, безтоновые слоги между ними становятся ниже. Это явление называется «нисходящим потоком» (downdrift). Однако существуют определенные типы фраз, в частности, в форме «существительное + of + существительное» или «глагол + местоположение», где нисходящий поток не происходит, а вместо этого все слоги между двумя лексическими высокими тонами связываются вместе в «плато», в котором все гласные имеют тоны одинаковой высоты, например, *mu maséréngétá gá Úgáńda* ‘на юге Уганды’ или *kírí mú Úgáńda* ‘это в Уганде’. Плато также встречается внутри слова, как в *Kámpálâ* (см. выше). Не может быть образовано плато между лексическим тоном и фразовым тоном; поэтому в предложении *kíri mu Bunyóró* ‘это в Буньоро’ происходит нисходящий поток, поскольку тоны *Bunyóró* являются фразовыми. Но фразовый тон может и часто формирует плато с последующим высоким тоном любого рода. Так, в *abántú mú Úgáńda* ‘люди в Уганде’ есть плато от фразового тона *tú* до лексического тона *gá*, а в *túgendá mú lúgúdó* ‘мы идем на улицу’ есть плато от фразового тона *ndá* до фразового тона *dó*.
According to one analysis, tones are carried on morae. In Luganda, a short vowel has one mora and a long vowel has two morae. A geminate or prenasalised consonant has one mora. A consonant + semivowel (e. g. gw or ly) also has one mora. A vowel followed by a prenasalised consonant has two morae including the one belonging to the prenasalised consonant. The initial vowel of words like ekitabo 'book' is considered to have one mora, even though such vowels are often pronounced long. No syllable can have more than two morae. Falling tones can be heard in syllables which have two morae, e. g. those with a long vowel (okukóoká 'to cry'), those with a short vowel followed by a geminate consonant (okubôbbá 'to throb'),
Although words like ekitabo are theoretically toneless, they are generally subject to a tone raising rule whereby all but the first mora acquire a high tone. Thus ekitabo 'book' is pronounced and ssomero 'school' is pronounced (where the long consonant counts as the first mora). These tones added to toneless words are called 'phrasal tones'. The tone raising rule also applies to the toneless syllables at the end of words like eddwâliro 'hospital' and túgenda 'we are going', provided that there is at least one low toned mora after the lexical tone. When this happens, the high tones which follow the low tone are slightly lower than the one which precedes it. However, there are certain contexts, such as when a toneless word is used as the subject of a sentence or before a numeral, when this tone raising rule does not apply: Masindi kibúga 'Masindi is a city'; ebitabo kkúmi 'ten books'. In a sentence, the lexical tones (that is, the high tones of individual words) tend to fall gradually in a series of steps from high to low. For example, in the sentence kye kibúga ekikúlu mu Ugáńda 'it is the chief city in Uganda', the lexical high tones of the syllables bú, kú and gá stand out and gradually descend in pitch, the toneless syllables in between being lower. This phenomenon is called 'downdrift'. However, there are certain types of phrase, notably those in the form 'noun + of + noun', or 'verb + location', where downdrift does not occur, and instead all the syllables in between the two lexical high tones link together into a 'plateau', in which all the vowels have tones of equal height, for example mu maséréngétá gá Úgáńda 'in the south of Uganda' or kírí mú Úgáńda 'it is in Uganda'. Plateauing also occurs within a word, as in Kámpálâ (see above). A plateau cannot be formed between a lexical tone and a phrasal tone; so in the sentence kíri mu Bunyóró 'it is in Bunyoro' there is downdrift, since the tones of Bunyóró are phrasal. But a phrasal tone can and frequently does form a plateau with a following high tone of either sort. So in abántú mú Úgáńda 'people in Uganda', there is a plateau from the phrasal tone of tú to the lexical tone of gá, and in túgendá mú lúgúúdó 'we are going into the street', there is a plateau from the phrasal tone of ndá to the phrasal tone of dó. Again there are certain exceptions; for example, there is no plateau before the words ono 'this' or bonnâ 'all': muntú onó 'this person', abántú bonnâ 'all the people'. Prefixes sometimes change the tones in a word. For example, Baganda 'they are Baganda' has LHHL, but adding the initial vowel a gives Abaganda 'Baganda people' with LLHLH. (Here, long vowels are transcribed double rather than with the length mark , to allow for tones to be written on each mora.) Different verb tenses have different tonal patterns. The tones of verbs are made more complicated by the fact that some verbs have a high tone on the first syllable of the root, while others do not, and also by the fact that the sequence HH generally becomes HL by a rule called Meeussen's rule. Thus asóma means 'he reads', but when the toneless prefix a 'he/she' is replaced by the high toned prefix bá 'they', instead of básóma it becomes básomá 'they read'. The tones of verbs in relative clauses and in negative sentences differ from those in ordinary positive sentences and the addition of an object marker such as mu 'him' adds further complications. In addition to lexical tones, phrasal tones, and the tonal patterns of tenses, there are also intonational tones in Luganda, for example, tones of questions. One rather unexpected phenomenon for English speakers is that if a yes–no question ends in a toneless word, instead of a rise, there is a sharp drop in pitch, e. g. lúnó lúgúúdò? 'is this a road? '.
Опять же, есть некоторые исключения; например, нет плато перед словами *ono* ‘этот’ или *bonnâ* ‘все’: *muntú onó* ‘этот человек’, *abántú bonnâ* ‘все люди’. Префиксы иногда меняют тональность слова. Например, *Baganda* ‘они Баганда’ имеет LHHL, но добавление начального гласного *a* дает *Abaganda* ‘народ Баганда’ с LLHLH. (Здесь длинные гласные записываются двойными, а не с длинным знаком, чтобы позволить записывать тоны на каждой море.) Разные глаголы имеют разные тональные паттерны. Тональность глаголов усложняется тем, что некоторые глаголы имеют высокий тон на первом слоге корня, в то время как другие нет, а также тем, что последовательность HH обычно становится HL по правилу, называемому правилом Миусена. Таким образом, *asóma* означает ‘он читает’, но когда бестоновый префикс *a* ‘он/она’ заменяется высокотонным префиксом *bá* ‘они’, вместо *básóma* он становится *básomá* ‘они читают’. Тон глаголов в относительных предложениях и отрицательных предложениях отличается от тона в обычных положительных предложениях, а добавление знака объекта, такого как *mu* ‘ему’, добавляет дополнительные сложности.
According to one analysis, tones are carried on morae. In Luganda, a short vowel has one mora and a long vowel has two morae. A geminate or prenasalised consonant has one mora. A consonant + semivowel (e. g. gw or ly) also has one mora. A vowel followed by a prenasalised consonant has two morae including the one belonging to the prenasalised consonant. The initial vowel of words like ekitabo 'book' is considered to have one mora, even though such vowels are often pronounced long. No syllable can have more than two morae. Falling tones can be heard in syllables which have two morae, e. g. those with a long vowel (okukóoká 'to cry'), those with a short vowel followed by a geminate consonant (okubôbbá 'to throb'),
Although words like ekitabo are theoretically toneless, they are generally subject to a tone raising rule whereby all but the first mora acquire a high tone. Thus ekitabo 'book' is pronounced and ssomero 'school' is pronounced (where the long consonant counts as the first mora). These tones added to toneless words are called 'phrasal tones'. The tone raising rule also applies to the toneless syllables at the end of words like eddwâliro 'hospital' and túgenda 'we are going', provided that there is at least one low toned mora after the lexical tone. When this happens, the high tones which follow the low tone are slightly lower than the one which precedes it. However, there are certain contexts, such as when a toneless word is used as the subject of a sentence or before a numeral, when this tone raising rule does not apply: Masindi kibúga 'Masindi is a city'; ebitabo kkúmi 'ten books'. In a sentence, the lexical tones (that is, the high tones of individual words) tend to fall gradually in a series of steps from high to low. For example, in the sentence kye kibúga ekikúlu mu Ugáńda 'it is the chief city in Uganda', the lexical high tones of the syllables bú, kú and gá stand out and gradually descend in pitch, the toneless syllables in between being lower. This phenomenon is called 'downdrift'. However, there are certain types of phrase, notably those in the form 'noun + of + noun', or 'verb + location', where downdrift does not occur, and instead all the syllables in between the two lexical high tones link together into a 'plateau', in which all the vowels have tones of equal height, for example mu maséréngétá gá Úgáńda 'in the south of Uganda' or kírí mú Úgáńda 'it is in Uganda'. Plateauing also occurs within a word, as in Kámpálâ (see above). A plateau cannot be formed between a lexical tone and a phrasal tone; so in the sentence kíri mu Bunyóró 'it is in Bunyoro' there is downdrift, since the tones of Bunyóró are phrasal. But a phrasal tone can and frequently does form a plateau with a following high tone of either sort. So in abántú mú Úgáńda 'people in Uganda', there is a plateau from the phrasal tone of tú to the lexical tone of gá, and in túgendá mú lúgúúdó 'we are going into the street', there is a plateau from the phrasal tone of ndá to the phrasal tone of dó. Again there are certain exceptions; for example, there is no plateau before the words ono 'this' or bonnâ 'all': muntú onó 'this person', abántú bonnâ 'all the people'. Prefixes sometimes change the tones in a word. For example, Baganda 'they are Baganda' has LHHL, but adding the initial vowel a gives Abaganda 'Baganda people' with LLHLH. (Here, long vowels are transcribed double rather than with the length mark , to allow for tones to be written on each mora.) Different verb tenses have different tonal patterns. The tones of verbs are made more complicated by the fact that some verbs have a high tone on the first syllable of the root, while others do not, and also by the fact that the sequence HH generally becomes HL by a rule called Meeussen's rule. Thus asóma means 'he reads', but when the toneless prefix a 'he/she' is replaced by the high toned prefix bá 'they', instead of básóma it becomes básomá 'they read'. The tones of verbs in relative clauses and in negative sentences differ from those in ordinary positive sentences and the addition of an object marker such as mu 'him' adds further complications. In addition to lexical tones, phrasal tones, and the tonal patterns of tenses, there are also intonational tones in Luganda, for example, tones of questions. One rather unexpected phenomenon for English speakers is that if a yes–no question ends in a toneless word, instead of a rise, there is a sharp drop in pitch, e. g. lúnó lúgúúdò? 'is this a road? '.
В дополнение к лексическим тонам, фразовым тонам и тональным паттернам времен, в языке луганда также существуют интонационные тоны, например, тоны вопросов. Одно из неожиданных явлений для англоговорящих — это то, что если вопрос, требующий ответа «да» или «нет», заканчивается безтоновым словом, вместо повышения интонации происходит резкое понижение тона, например, *lúnó lúgúúdò?* ‘это дорога?’.
According to one analysis, tones are carried on morae. In Luganda, a short vowel has one mora and a long vowel has two morae. A geminate or prenasalised consonant has one mora. A consonant + semivowel (e. g. gw or ly) also has one mora. A vowel followed by a prenasalised consonant has two morae including the one belonging to the prenasalised consonant. The initial vowel of words like ekitabo 'book' is considered to have one mora, even though such vowels are often pronounced long. No syllable can have more than two morae. Falling tones can be heard in syllables which have two morae, e. g. those with a long vowel (okukóoká 'to cry'), those with a short vowel followed by a geminate consonant (okubôbbá 'to throb'),
Although words like ekitabo are theoretically toneless, they are generally subject to a tone raising rule whereby all but the first mora acquire a high tone. Thus ekitabo 'book' is pronounced and ssomero 'school' is pronounced (where the long consonant counts as the first mora). These tones added to toneless words are called 'phrasal tones'. The tone raising rule also applies to the toneless syllables at the end of words like eddwâliro 'hospital' and túgenda 'we are going', provided that there is at least one low toned mora after the lexical tone. When this happens, the high tones which follow the low tone are slightly lower than the one which precedes it. However, there are certain contexts, such as when a toneless word is used as the subject of a sentence or before a numeral, when this tone raising rule does not apply: Masindi kibúga 'Masindi is a city'; ebitabo kkúmi 'ten books'. In a sentence, the lexical tones (that is, the high tones of individual words) tend to fall gradually in a series of steps from high to low. For example, in the sentence kye kibúga ekikúlu mu Ugáńda 'it is the chief city in Uganda', the lexical high tones of the syllables bú, kú and gá stand out and gradually descend in pitch, the toneless syllables in between being lower. This phenomenon is called 'downdrift'. However, there are certain types of phrase, notably those in the form 'noun + of + noun', or 'verb + location', where downdrift does not occur, and instead all the syllables in between the two lexical high tones link together into a 'plateau', in which all the vowels have tones of equal height, for example mu maséréngétá gá Úgáńda 'in the south of Uganda' or kírí mú Úgáńda 'it is in Uganda'. Plateauing also occurs within a word, as in Kámpálâ (see above). A plateau cannot be formed between a lexical tone and a phrasal tone; so in the sentence kíri mu Bunyóró 'it is in Bunyoro' there is downdrift, since the tones of Bunyóró are phrasal. But a phrasal tone can and frequently does form a plateau with a following high tone of either sort. So in abántú mú Úgáńda 'people in Uganda', there is a plateau from the phrasal tone of tú to the lexical tone of gá, and in túgendá mú lúgúúdó 'we are going into the street', there is a plateau from the phrasal tone of ndá to the phrasal tone of dó. Again there are certain exceptions; for example, there is no plateau before the words ono 'this' or bonnâ 'all': muntú onó 'this person', abántú bonnâ 'all the people'. Prefixes sometimes change the tones in a word. For example, Baganda 'they are Baganda' has LHHL, but adding the initial vowel a gives Abaganda 'Baganda people' with LLHLH. (Here, long vowels are transcribed double rather than with the length mark , to allow for tones to be written on each mora.) Different verb tenses have different tonal patterns. The tones of verbs are made more complicated by the fact that some verbs have a high tone on the first syllable of the root, while others do not, and also by the fact that the sequence HH generally becomes HL by a rule called Meeussen's rule. Thus asóma means 'he reads', but when the toneless prefix a 'he/she' is replaced by the high toned prefix bá 'they', instead of básóma it becomes básomá 'they read'. The tones of verbs in relative clauses and in negative sentences differ from those in ordinary positive sentences and the addition of an object marker such as mu 'him' adds further complications. In addition to lexical tones, phrasal tones, and the tonal patterns of tenses, there are also intonational tones in Luganda, for example, tones of questions. One rather unexpected phenomenon for English speakers is that if a yes–no question ends in a toneless word, instead of a rise, there is a sharp drop in pitch, e. g. lúnó lúgúúdò? 'is this a road? '.
Заимствования
В языке луганда существует ограниченный набор местоимений.
Личные местоимения
В луганда могут использоваться как самостоятельные личные местоимения, так и местоимения, присоединяемые к основе глагола.
Напряженность и настроение
Временные, видовые и наклоненные формы в луганда четко маркируются на глаголе, как и в большинстве других языков банту.
Образец текста
Люди рождаются свободными и равными в своем достоинстве и правах, наделены разумом и способностью различать добро и зло, поэтому каждый должен относиться к другому как к брату.