Введение
Географическая теория пространственного распределения городов
Central place theory is an urban geographical theory that seeks to explain the number, size and range of market services in a commercial system or human settlements in a residential system. It was introduced in 1933 to explain the spatial distribution of cities across the landscape. The theory was first analyzed by German geographer Walter Christaller, who asserted that settlements simply functioned as 'central places' providing economic services to surrounding areas. All areas have:
an unbounded isotropic (all flat), homogeneous, limitless surface (abstract space)
an evenly distributed population
all settlements are equidistant and exist in a triangular lattice pattern
evenly distributed resources
distance decay mechanism
perfect competition and all sellers are economic people maximizing their profits
consumers are of the same income level and same shopping behaviour
all consumers have a similar purchasing power and demand for goods and services. Consumers visit the nearest central places that provide the function which they demand. They minimize the distance to be travelled
no provider of goods or services is able to earn excess profit (each supplier has a monopoly over a hinterland)
Therefore, the trade areas of these central places who provide a particular good or service must all be of equal size
there is only one type of transport and this would be equally easy in all directions
transport cost is directly proportional to distance travelled
These assumptions generally mean that the theory has no utility beyond abstract discussions. The theory then relied on two concepts: threshold and range. Threshold is the minimum market (population or income) needed to bring about the selling of a particular good or service. Range is the maximum distance consumers are prepared to travel to acquire goods at some point the cost or inconvenience will outweigh the need for the good. The result of these consumer preferences is that a system of centers of various sizes will emerge. Each center will supply particular types of goods forming levels of hierarchy. In the functional hierarchies, generalizations can be made regarding the spacing, size and function of settlements. The larger the settlements are in size, the fewer in number they will be, i. e. there are many small villages, but few large cities. The larger the settlements grow in size, the greater the distance between them, i. e. villages are usually found close together, while cities are spaced much further apart. As a settlement increases in size, the range and number of its functions will increase As a settlement increases in size, the number of higher order services will also increase, i. e. a greater degree of specialization occurs in the services. The higher the order of the goods and services (more durable, valuable and variable), the larger the range of the goods and services, the longer the distance people are willing to travel to acquire them. At the base of the hierarchy pyramid are shopping centres, newsagents etc. which sell low order goods. These centres are small. At the top of the pyramid are centres selling high order goods. These centres are large. Examples for low order goods and services are: newspaper stalls, groceries, bakeries and post offices. Examples for high order goods and services include jewelry, large shopping malls and arcades. They are supported by a much larger threshold population and demand.
Теория центральных мест – это теория городской географии, стремящаяся объяснить количество, размер и охват рыночных услуг в коммерческой системе или населенных пунктов в жилой системе. Она была предложена в 1933 году для объяснения пространственного распределения городов на территории. Первым теорию проанализировал немецкий географ Вальтер Кристаллер, который утверждал, что поселения функционируют как «центральные места», предоставляющие экономические услуги окружающим районам. Все территории характеризуются:
Central place theory is an urban geographical theory that seeks to explain the number, size and range of market services in a commercial system or human settlements in a residential system. It was introduced in 1933 to explain the spatial distribution of cities across the landscape. The theory was first analyzed by German geographer Walter Christaller, who asserted that settlements simply functioned as 'central places' providing economic services to surrounding areas. All areas have:
an unbounded isotropic (all flat), homogeneous, limitless surface (abstract space)
an evenly distributed population
all settlements are equidistant and exist in a triangular lattice pattern
evenly distributed resources
distance decay mechanism
perfect competition and all sellers are economic people maximizing their profits
consumers are of the same income level and same shopping behaviour
all consumers have a similar purchasing power and demand for goods and services. Consumers visit the nearest central places that provide the function which they demand. They minimize the distance to be travelled
no provider of goods or services is able to earn excess profit (each supplier has a monopoly over a hinterland)
Therefore, the trade areas of these central places who provide a particular good or service must all be of equal size
there is only one type of transport and this would be equally easy in all directions
transport cost is directly proportional to distance travelled
These assumptions generally mean that the theory has no utility beyond abstract discussions. The theory then relied on two concepts: threshold and range. Threshold is the minimum market (population or income) needed to bring about the selling of a particular good or service. Range is the maximum distance consumers are prepared to travel to acquire goods at some point the cost or inconvenience will outweigh the need for the good. The result of these consumer preferences is that a system of centers of various sizes will emerge. Each center will supply particular types of goods forming levels of hierarchy. In the functional hierarchies, generalizations can be made regarding the spacing, size and function of settlements. The larger the settlements are in size, the fewer in number they will be, i. e. there are many small villages, but few large cities. The larger the settlements grow in size, the greater the distance between them, i. e. villages are usually found close together, while cities are spaced much further apart. As a settlement increases in size, the range and number of its functions will increase As a settlement increases in size, the number of higher order services will also increase, i. e. a greater degree of specialization occurs in the services. The higher the order of the goods and services (more durable, valuable and variable), the larger the range of the goods and services, the longer the distance people are willing to travel to acquire them. At the base of the hierarchy pyramid are shopping centres, newsagents etc. which sell low order goods. These centres are small. At the top of the pyramid are centres selling high order goods. These centres are large. Examples for low order goods and services are: newspaper stalls, groceries, bakeries and post offices. Examples for high order goods and services include jewelry, large shopping malls and arcades. They are supported by a much larger threshold population and demand.
неограниченной изотропной (полностью плоской), однородной и безграничной поверхностью (абстрактным пространством);
равномерно распределенным населением;
тем, что все поселения равноудалены друг от друга и расположены в виде треугольной решетки;
равномерно распределенными ресурсами;
механизмом убывания с расстоянием;
совершенной конкуренцией, где все продавцы – экономически рациональные агенты, максимизирующие свою прибыль;
одинаковым уровнем дохода и потребительским поведением у всех потребителей;
сходной покупательной способностью и спросом на товары и услуги. Потребители посещают ближайшие центральные места, предоставляющие необходимые им функции, стремясь минимизировать расстояние для поездки;
невозможностью для поставщиков товаров или услуг получать сверхприбыль (каждый поставщик обладает монополией на определенной территории обслуживания).
Central place theory is an urban geographical theory that seeks to explain the number, size and range of market services in a commercial system or human settlements in a residential system. It was introduced in 1933 to explain the spatial distribution of cities across the landscape. The theory was first analyzed by German geographer Walter Christaller, who asserted that settlements simply functioned as 'central places' providing economic services to surrounding areas. All areas have:
an unbounded isotropic (all flat), homogeneous, limitless surface (abstract space)
an evenly distributed population
all settlements are equidistant and exist in a triangular lattice pattern
evenly distributed resources
distance decay mechanism
perfect competition and all sellers are economic people maximizing their profits
consumers are of the same income level and same shopping behaviour
all consumers have a similar purchasing power and demand for goods and services. Consumers visit the nearest central places that provide the function which they demand. They minimize the distance to be travelled
no provider of goods or services is able to earn excess profit (each supplier has a monopoly over a hinterland)
Therefore, the trade areas of these central places who provide a particular good or service must all be of equal size
there is only one type of transport and this would be equally easy in all directions
transport cost is directly proportional to distance travelled
These assumptions generally mean that the theory has no utility beyond abstract discussions. The theory then relied on two concepts: threshold and range. Threshold is the minimum market (population or income) needed to bring about the selling of a particular good or service. Range is the maximum distance consumers are prepared to travel to acquire goods at some point the cost or inconvenience will outweigh the need for the good. The result of these consumer preferences is that a system of centers of various sizes will emerge. Each center will supply particular types of goods forming levels of hierarchy. In the functional hierarchies, generalizations can be made regarding the spacing, size and function of settlements. The larger the settlements are in size, the fewer in number they will be, i. e. there are many small villages, but few large cities. The larger the settlements grow in size, the greater the distance between them, i. e. villages are usually found close together, while cities are spaced much further apart. As a settlement increases in size, the range and number of its functions will increase As a settlement increases in size, the number of higher order services will also increase, i. e. a greater degree of specialization occurs in the services. The higher the order of the goods and services (more durable, valuable and variable), the larger the range of the goods and services, the longer the distance people are willing to travel to acquire them. At the base of the hierarchy pyramid are shopping centres, newsagents etc. which sell low order goods. These centres are small. At the top of the pyramid are centres selling high order goods. These centres are large. Examples for low order goods and services are: newspaper stalls, groceries, bakeries and post offices. Examples for high order goods and services include jewelry, large shopping malls and arcades. They are supported by a much larger threshold population and demand.
Следовательно, зоны обслуживания этих центральных мест, предоставляющих определенный товар или услугу, должны быть одинакового размера. Существует только один вид транспорта, и он одинаково доступен во всех направлениях. Транспортные издержки прямо пропорциональны пройденному расстоянию.
Central place theory is an urban geographical theory that seeks to explain the number, size and range of market services in a commercial system or human settlements in a residential system. It was introduced in 1933 to explain the spatial distribution of cities across the landscape. The theory was first analyzed by German geographer Walter Christaller, who asserted that settlements simply functioned as 'central places' providing economic services to surrounding areas. All areas have:
an unbounded isotropic (all flat), homogeneous, limitless surface (abstract space)
an evenly distributed population
all settlements are equidistant and exist in a triangular lattice pattern
evenly distributed resources
distance decay mechanism
perfect competition and all sellers are economic people maximizing their profits
consumers are of the same income level and same shopping behaviour
all consumers have a similar purchasing power and demand for goods and services. Consumers visit the nearest central places that provide the function which they demand. They minimize the distance to be travelled
no provider of goods or services is able to earn excess profit (each supplier has a monopoly over a hinterland)
Therefore, the trade areas of these central places who provide a particular good or service must all be of equal size
there is only one type of transport and this would be equally easy in all directions
transport cost is directly proportional to distance travelled
These assumptions generally mean that the theory has no utility beyond abstract discussions. The theory then relied on two concepts: threshold and range. Threshold is the minimum market (population or income) needed to bring about the selling of a particular good or service. Range is the maximum distance consumers are prepared to travel to acquire goods at some point the cost or inconvenience will outweigh the need for the good. The result of these consumer preferences is that a system of centers of various sizes will emerge. Each center will supply particular types of goods forming levels of hierarchy. In the functional hierarchies, generalizations can be made regarding the spacing, size and function of settlements. The larger the settlements are in size, the fewer in number they will be, i. e. there are many small villages, but few large cities. The larger the settlements grow in size, the greater the distance between them, i. e. villages are usually found close together, while cities are spaced much further apart. As a settlement increases in size, the range and number of its functions will increase As a settlement increases in size, the number of higher order services will also increase, i. e. a greater degree of specialization occurs in the services. The higher the order of the goods and services (more durable, valuable and variable), the larger the range of the goods and services, the longer the distance people are willing to travel to acquire them. At the base of the hierarchy pyramid are shopping centres, newsagents etc. which sell low order goods. These centres are small. At the top of the pyramid are centres selling high order goods. These centres are large. Examples for low order goods and services are: newspaper stalls, groceries, bakeries and post offices. Examples for high order goods and services include jewelry, large shopping malls and arcades. They are supported by a much larger threshold population and demand.
В целом, эти предположения ограничивают применимость теории абстрактными дискуссиями. В основе теории лежат два понятия: порог и охват. Порог – это минимальный рынок (численность населения или доход), необходимый для реализации определенного товара или услуги. Охват – это максимальное расстояние, которое потребители готовы преодолеть для приобретения товара; в определенный момент стоимость или неудобства перевешивают потребность в товаре. В результате этих потребительских предпочтений формируется система центров различного размера. Каждый центр специализируется на определенных видах товаров, образуя уровни иерархии. В функциональных иерархиях можно сделать обобщения относительно расположения, размера и функций поселений. Чем больше размер поселения, тем меньше их количество, то есть много небольших деревень, но мало крупных городов. С увеличением размера поселения увеличивается и расстояние между ними, то есть деревни обычно расположены близко друг к другу, а города – на значительном расстоянии. С ростом размера поселения увеличивается охват и количество предоставляемых им функций. С увеличением размера поселения возрастает количество услуг более высокого порядка, то есть происходит большая специализация услуг. Чем выше порядок товаров и услуг (более долговечные, ценные и разнообразные), тем больше их охват, и тем большее расстояние люди готовы преодолеть для их приобретения. В основании иерархической пирамиды находятся торговые точки, газетные киоски и т. п., продающие товары повседневного спроса. Эти центры небольшие. На вершине пирамиды находятся центры, продающие товары более высокого порядка. Эти центры крупные. Примеры товаров повседневного спроса: газетные киоски, продуктовые магазины, пекарни и почтовые отделения. Примеры товаров более высокого порядка: ювелирные изделия, крупные торговые центры и галереи. Их обеспечивает значительно большая численность населения и спрос.
Central place theory is an urban geographical theory that seeks to explain the number, size and range of market services in a commercial system or human settlements in a residential system. It was introduced in 1933 to explain the spatial distribution of cities across the landscape. The theory was first analyzed by German geographer Walter Christaller, who asserted that settlements simply functioned as 'central places' providing economic services to surrounding areas. All areas have:
an unbounded isotropic (all flat), homogeneous, limitless surface (abstract space)
an evenly distributed population
all settlements are equidistant and exist in a triangular lattice pattern
evenly distributed resources
distance decay mechanism
perfect competition and all sellers are economic people maximizing their profits
consumers are of the same income level and same shopping behaviour
all consumers have a similar purchasing power and demand for goods and services. Consumers visit the nearest central places that provide the function which they demand. They minimize the distance to be travelled
no provider of goods or services is able to earn excess profit (each supplier has a monopoly over a hinterland)
Therefore, the trade areas of these central places who provide a particular good or service must all be of equal size
there is only one type of transport and this would be equally easy in all directions
transport cost is directly proportional to distance travelled
These assumptions generally mean that the theory has no utility beyond abstract discussions. The theory then relied on two concepts: threshold and range. Threshold is the minimum market (population or income) needed to bring about the selling of a particular good or service. Range is the maximum distance consumers are prepared to travel to acquire goods at some point the cost or inconvenience will outweigh the need for the good. The result of these consumer preferences is that a system of centers of various sizes will emerge. Each center will supply particular types of goods forming levels of hierarchy. In the functional hierarchies, generalizations can be made regarding the spacing, size and function of settlements. The larger the settlements are in size, the fewer in number they will be, i. e. there are many small villages, but few large cities. The larger the settlements grow in size, the greater the distance between them, i. e. villages are usually found close together, while cities are spaced much further apart. As a settlement increases in size, the range and number of its functions will increase As a settlement increases in size, the number of higher order services will also increase, i. e. a greater degree of specialization occurs in the services. The higher the order of the goods and services (more durable, valuable and variable), the larger the range of the goods and services, the longer the distance people are willing to travel to acquire them. At the base of the hierarchy pyramid are shopping centres, newsagents etc. which sell low order goods. These centres are small. At the top of the pyramid are centres selling high order goods. These centres are large. Examples for low order goods and services are: newspaper stalls, groceries, bakeries and post offices. Examples for high order goods and services include jewelry, large shopping malls and arcades. They are supported by a much larger threshold population and demand.
Принцип маркетинга K = 3
Согласно принципу маркетинга K = 3, рыночная зона центра более высокого порядка (узла) занимает одну треть рыночной зоны каждого из последовательно меньших по размеру центров (узлов), расположенных в его зоне влияния; центры меньшего порядка (6 штук, обозначенные вторыми по величине кругами) расположены в вершинах наибольшего шестиугольника, окружающего центр высшего порядка. Каждый центр высшего порядка получает одну треть от каждого из шести окружающих его центров меньшего порядка, таким образом, K = 1 + 6 × 1/3 = 3. Однако в этой маркетинговой сети с K = 3 расстояние, которое необходимо преодолеть, минимизировано.
Внедрение теории центральных мест
КПТ часто критикуют за "нереалистичность". Однако ряд исследований показывает, что она может описывать существующие городские системы. Важным моментом является то, что первоначальная формулировка Кристаллера содержит несколько неточностей (Смит). Эти ошибки становятся очевидными, когда мы пытаемся сделать КПТ "рабочей", то есть получить количественные данные из теоретических схем. Эти проблемы были выявлены Венерисом (1984), а затем Опеншоу и Венерисом (2003), которые также предложили теоретически обоснованные и непротиворечивые решения, основанные на системе CP с K=3 и 37 центрами: Проблема ограничения. Оригинальная схема Кристаллера подразумевает бесконечную территорию. Хотя каждый рынок имеет конечный размер, вся система не имеет границ. Ни Кристаллер, ни ранние работы, связанные с его теорией, не содержат указаний о том, как "ограничить" систему. Опеншоу и Венерис (2003) выделили три типа ограничения: (a) изолированное государство, (b) территориальное ограничение и (c) функциональное ограничение. Каждый тип ограничения предполагает различные модели распределения населения. Генерация поездок. Следуя базовой кристалловской логике и выделенным типам ограничения, Опеншоу и Венерис (2003) рассчитывают модели поездок между 27 центрами. Расчет меж- и внутризональных издержек/расстояний. Кристаллер предполагал свободу передвижения во всех направлениях, что подразумевало бы "прямые" расстояния между центрами. В то же время он предоставил конкретные дорожные сети для системы CP, которые не позволяют использовать прямые расстояния. Это серьезный недостаток, который не был замечен ни Кристаллером, ни ранними работами, связанными с его теорией. Опеншоу и Венерис (2003) рассчитывают издержки/расстояния, соответствующие принципам Кристаллера.
Closure problem. Christaller's original scheme implies an infinite landscape. Although each market has finite size, the total system has no boundaries to it. Neither Christaller, nor the early related literature provide any guidance as to how the system can be "contained". Openshaw and Veneris (2003) identified three different types of closure, namely (a) isolated state, (b) territorial closure and (c) functional closure. Each closure type implies different population patterns. Generating trips. Following the basic Christallerian logic and the closure types identified, Openshaw and Veneris (2003) calculate trip patterns between the 27 centres. Calculating inter and intra zonal costs/distances. Christaller assumed freedom of movement in all directions, which would imply "airline" distances between centres. At the same time, he provided specific road networks for the CP system, which do not allow for airline distances. This is a major flaw which neither Christaller, nor early related literature have identified. Openshaw and Veneris (2003) calculate costs/distances which are consistent with the Christallerian principles.
Центральная теория места и модели пространственного взаимодействия
Когда-то считалось, что теория центральных мест несовместима с моделями пространственного взаимодействия (SIM). Однако парадоксально, что порой города или торговые центры планируются на основе теории центральных мест (CPT), а затем оцениваются с использованием SIM. Опеншоу и Венерис (2003) сумели связать эти две ключевые региональные теории четким и теоретически обоснованным способом: используя данные, полученные в результате практического применения CPT, они провели эксперименты с несколькими SIM. После всестороннего исследования с помощью компьютерного моделирования они пришли к важным теоретическим и практическим выводам. Смит смог выделить регионы оказания медицинской помощи (охват), описать иерархию медицинских услуг, определить минимальную численность населения, необходимую для каждой медицинской специальности (пороговое значение), оценить эффективность регионов и установить важность характера освоения территории для организации медицинской помощи, то есть соответствие транспортным, рыночным или административным принципам.