Введение
Понятие площади в любом измерении
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
В теории мер, ветви математики, мера Лебега, названная в честь французского математика Анри Лебега, является стандартным способом присвоения меры подмножествам евклидовых n-мерных пространств. Для меньших измерений n = 1, 2 или 3, она совпадает со стандартной мерой длины, площади или объема. В общем случае она также называется n-мерным объемом, n-объемом, гиперобъемом или просто объемом. Она используется во всем математическом анализе, в частности, для определения интеграла Лебега. Множество, которому можно присвоить меру Лебега, называется измеримым по Лебегу; мера измеримого по Лебегу множества A здесь обозначается λ(A). Анри Лебег описал эту меру в 1901 году, что было дополнено его описанием интеграла Лебега годом позже. Оба результата были опубликованы в 1902 году в его диссертации.
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
Определение
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
Для любого интервала (a, b) или [a, b] в множестве действительных чисел, обозначим его длину как l((a, b)) или l([a, b]). Для любого подмножества E множества действительных чисел, внешняя мера Лебега m*(E) определяется как инфимум:
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
m*(E) = inf { Σ l(Iₙ) : E ⊆ ∪ᵢ Iₙ }, где Iₙ – интервалы.
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
Вышеуказанное определение можно обобщить на более высокие измерения следующим образом. Для любого прямоугольного параллелепипеда Q, являющегося декартовым произведением открытых интервалов, обозначим его объем как V(Q). Для любого подмножества E ⊆ ℝⁿ:
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
m*(E) = inf { Σ V(Qᵢ) : E ⊆ ∪ᵢ Qᵢ }, где Qᵢ – прямоугольные параллелепипеды.
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
Некоторые множества E удовлетворяют критерию Каратеодори, который требует, чтобы для каждого множества A ⊆ ℝⁿ:
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
m*(A ∪ E) + m*(A ∩ E) ≤ m*(A) + m*(E).
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
Множества, удовлетворяющие критерию Каратеодори, называются измеримыми по Лебегу, а их мера Лебега определяется как их внешняя мера Лебега: множество всех таких множеств образует σ-алгебру. Множество, не удовлетворяющее критерию Каратеодори, не является измеримым по Лебегу. ZFC доказывает, что существуют неизмеримые множества; примером является множество Витали.
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
Интуиция
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
Первая часть определения утверждает, что подмножество E действительных чисел сводится к своей внешней мере путем покрытия множествами открытых интервалов. Каждый из этих наборов интервалов покрывает E в некотором смысле, поскольку объединение этих интервалов содержит E. Общая длина любого покрывающего набора интервалов может переоценивать меру E, поскольку E является подмножеством объединения интервалов, и поэтому интервалы могут включать точки, которые не принадлежат E. Внешняя мера Лебега возникает как наибольшая нижняя граница (инфимум) длин из всех возможных таких наборов. Интуитивно, это общая длина тех интервалов, которые наиболее плотно прилегают к E и не перекрываются. Это характеризует внешнюю меру Лебега. То, переходит ли эта внешняя мера в собственно меру Лебега, зависит от дополнительного условия. Это условие проверяется путем взятия подмножеств A множества действительных чисел, используя A в качестве инструмента для разделения E на две части: часть E, пересекающуюся с A, и оставшуюся часть E, не принадлежащую A: разность множеств A и E. Эти разделы E подвергаются внешней мере. Если для всех возможных таких подмножеств A множества действительных чисел, разделы E, разделенные A, имеют внешние меры, сумма которых равна внешней мере E, то внешняя мера Лебега E дает его меру Лебега. Интуитивно это условие означает, что множество E не должно иметь каких-то специфических свойств, которые вызывают расхождение в мере другого множества, когда E используется в качестве "маски" для "вырезания" этого множества, намекая на существование множеств, для которых внешняя мера Лебега не дает меру Лебега. (Такие множества, на самом деле, не являются измеримыми по Лебегу.)
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
Примеры
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
Любой замкнутый интервал [a, b] действительных чисел является измеримым по Лебегу, и его мера Лебега равна длине b − a. Открытый интервал (a, b) имеет ту же меру, поскольку разница между двумя множествами состоит только из конечных точек a и b, каждая из которых имеет меру нуль. Любое декартово произведение интервалов [a, b] × [c, d] является измеримым по Лебегу, и его мера Лебега равна (b − a)(d − c), площади соответствующего прямоугольника. Более того, каждое множество Бореля является измеримым по Лебегу. Однако существуют измеримые множества Лебега, которые не являются множествами Бореля. Любое счетное множество действительных чисел имеет меру Лебега 0. В частности, мера Лебега множества алгебраических чисел равна 0, хотя множество плотно в ℝ. Множество Кантора и множество чисел Лиувилля являются примерами несчетных множеств, которые имеют меру Лебега 0. Если аксиома детерминированности верна, то все множества действительных чисел являются измеримыми по Лебегу. Однако детерминированность несовместима с аксиомой выбора. Множества Витали являются примерами множеств, которые не измеримы относительно меры Лебега. Их существование опирается на аксиому выбора. Кривые Осгуда — это простые плоские кривые с положительной мерой Лебега (ее можно получить путем небольшой вариации построения кривой Пеано). Кривая дракона — еще один необычный пример. Любая прямая в ℝⁿ, где n > 1, имеет меру Лебега нуль. В общем случае, любая собственная гиперплоскость имеет меру Лебега нуль в своем окружающем пространстве. Объем n-мерного шара можно вычислить в терминах гамма-функции Эйлера.
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
Свойства
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
Мера Лебега на ℝⁿ обладает следующими свойствами:
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
Если A является декартовым произведением интервалов I₁ × I₂ × ⋯ × Iₙ, то A измерима по Лебегу и λ(A) = ∏ᵢ l(Iᵢ).
Если A является непересекающимся объединением счетного числа непересекающихся измеримых по Лебегу множеств, то A само измеримо по Лебегу и λ(A) равно сумме (или бесконечному ряду) мер вовлеченных измеримых множеств.
Если A измеримо по Лебегу, то и его дополнение также измеримо по Лебегу.
λ(A) ≥ 0 для каждого измеримого по Лебегу множества A.
Если A и B измеримы по Лебегу и A является подмножеством B, то λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (Следствие 2.)
Счетные объединения и пересечения измеримых по Лебегу множеств измеримы по Лебегу. (Не является следствием 2 и 3, поскольку семейство множеств, замкнутое относительно дополнений и счетных непересекающихся объединений, не обязательно замкнуто относительно счетных объединений.)
Если A является открытым или замкнутым подмножеством ℝⁿ (или даже множеством Бореля, см. метрическое пространство), то A измеримо по Лебегу.
Если A является измеримым по Лебегу множеством, то оно "приблизительно открыто" и "приблизительно замкнуто" в смысле меры Лебега. Измеримое по Лебегу множество можно "сжать" между содержащим открытым множеством и содержащимся замкнутым множеством. Это свойство использовалось в качестве альтернативного определения измеримости по Лебегу. Более точно, множество E измеримо по Лебегу тогда и только тогда, когда для каждого ε > 0 существуют открытое множество G и замкнутое множество F такие, что F ⊆ E ⊆ G и λ(G \ E) = λ(E \ F) = ε.
Измеримое по Лебегу множество можно "сжать" между содержащим множеством Gδ и содержащимся множеством Fσ. То есть, если A измеримо по Лебегу, то существуют множества Gδ G и Fσ F такие, что G ⊇ A ⊇ F и λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0.
Мера Лебега является локально конечной и внутренне регулярной, и поэтому является мерой Радона.
Мера Лебега строго положительна на непустых открытых множествах, и поэтому ее носитель — все ℝⁿ.
Если A является измеримым по Лебегу множеством с λ(A) = 0 (множество меры нуль), то каждое подмножество A также является множеством меры нуль. А fortiori, каждое подмножество A измеримо.
Если A измеримо по Лебегу и x является элементом ℝⁿ, то сдвиг A на x, определяемый как A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, также измерим по Лебегу и имеет ту же меру, что и A.
Если A измеримо по Лебегу и α > 0, то расширение A на α, определяемое как αA = {αa : a ∈ A}, также измеримо по Лебегу и имеет меру αⁿλ(A).
В более общем случае, если T является линейным преобразованием и A является измеримым подмножеством ℝⁿ, то T(A) также измеримо по Лебегу и имеет меру λ(T(A)) = |det(T)|λ(A).
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
Все вышеперечисленное можно кратко суммировать следующим образом (хотя последние два утверждения нетривиально связаны с последующим):
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
Измеримые по Лебегу множества образуют σ-алгебру, содержащую все произведения интервалов, и λ является единственной полной трансляционно-инвариантной мерой на этой σ-алгебре с λ(I) = l(I) для любого интервала I.
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
Мера Лебега также является σ-конечной.
In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of higher dimensional Euclidean n spaces. For lower dimensions n = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n dimensional volume, n volume, hypervolume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is here denoted by λ(A). Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901 which, a year after, was followed up by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. Definition
For any interval , or , in the set of real numbers, let denote its length. For any subset , the Lebesgue outer measure is defined as an infimum
The above definition can be generalised to higher dimensions as follows. For any rectangular cuboid which is a Cartesian product of open intervals, let (a real number product) denote its volume. For any subset ,
Some sets satisfy the Carathéodory criterion, which requires that for every ,
The sets that satisfy the Carathéodory criterion are said to be Lebesgue measurable, with its Lebesgue measure being defined as its Lebesgue outer measure: The set of all such forms a σ algebra. A set that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue measurable. ZFC proves that non measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets. Intuition
The first part of the definition states that the subset of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals covers in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of because is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit most tightly and do not overlap. That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets of the real numbers using as an instrument to split into two partitions: the part of which intersects with and the remaining part of which is not in : the set difference of and These partitions of are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets of the real numbers, the partitions of cut apart by have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of , then the outer Lebesgue measure of gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue measurable.) Examples
Any closed interval [a, b] of real numbers is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is the length b − a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets consists only of the end points a and b, which each have measure zero. Any Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d] is Lebesgue measurable, and its Lebesgue measure is (b − a)(d − c), the area of the corresponding rectangle. Moreover, every Borel set is Lebesgue measurable. However, there are Lebesgue measurable sets which are not Borel sets. Any countable set of real numbers has Lebesgue measure 0. In particular, the Lebesgue measure of the set of algebraic numbers is 0, even though the set is dense in The Cantor set and the set of Liouville numbers are examples of uncountable sets that have Lebesgue measure 0. If the axiom of determinacy holds then all sets of reals are Lebesgue measurable. Determinacy is however not compatible with the axiom of choice. Vitali sets are examples of sets that are not measurable with respect to the Lebesgue measure. Their existence relies on the axiom of choice. Osgood curves are simple plane curves with positive Lebesgue measure (it can be obtained by small variation of the Peano curve construction). The dragon curve is another unusual example. Any line in , for , has a zero Lebesgue measure. In general, every proper hyperplane has a zero Lebesgue measure in its ambient space. The volume of an n ball can be calculated in terms of Euler's gamma function. Properties
The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties:
If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ⋯ × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and
If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions does not need to be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure. A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing open set and a contained closed set. This property has been used as an alternative definition of Lebesgue measurability. More precisely, is Lebesgue measurable if and only if for every there exist an open set and a closed set such that and A Lebesgue measurable set can be "squeezed" between a containing Gδ set and a contained Fσ. I. e, if A is Lebesgue measurable then there exist a Gδ set G and an Fσ F such that G ⊇ A ⊇ F and λ(G \ A) = λ(A \ F) = 0. Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of R'''n. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure
More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of R'''n, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure
All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non trivially linked to the following):
The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ'' is the unique complete translation invariant measure on that σ algebra with
The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ finite.
Нуллевые множества
Подмножество Rn является множеством меры нуль, если для любого ε > 0 его можно покрыть счётным числом произведений n интервалов, общий объём которых не превышает ε. Все счётные множества являются множествами меры нуль. Если подмножество Rn имеет размерность Хаусдорфа меньше n, то оно является множеством меры нуль относительно n-мерной меры Лебега. Здесь размерность Хаусдорфа рассматривается относительно евклидовой метрики на Rn (или любой метрики, липшицево эквивалентной ей). С другой стороны, множество может иметь топологическую размерность меньше n и при этом иметь положительную n-мерную меру Лебега. Примером этого является множество Смита — Вольтерры — Кантора, которое имеет топологическую размерность 0, но при этом имеет положительную 1-мерную меру Лебега. Чтобы доказать, что данное множество A измеримо по Лебегу, обычно пытаются найти "более удобное" множество B, которое отличается от A лишь множеством меры нуль (в том смысле, что симметричная разность (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A) является множеством меры нуль), а затем показать, что B можно построить с помощью счётных объединений и пересечений открытых или замкнутых множеств.
Связь с другими мерами
Мерка Бореля согласуется с мерой Лебега на множествах, для которых она определена; однако, существует значительно больше множеств, измеримых по Лебегу, чем множеств, измеримых по Борелю. Мерка Бореля инвариантна относительно сдвигов, но не является полной. Мера Хаара может быть определена на любой локально компактной группе и является обобщением меры Лебега (например, Rn с операцией сложения является локально компактной группой). Мера Хаусдорфа является обобщением меры Лебега, полезным для измерения подмножеств Rn размерности, меньшей n, таких как подмногообразия, например, поверхности или кривые в R3, и фрактальные множества. Меру Хаусдорфа не следует путать с понятием размерности Хаусдорфа. Можно показать, что аналога меры Лебега для бесконечномерных пространств не существует.