Anglo-Persian War

1856–1857 war between the UK and Iran

The Anglo Persian War or the Anglo Iranian War (جنگ ایران و انگلستان) lasted between 1 November 1856 and 4 April 1857, and was fought between the United Kingdom and Iran, which was ruled by the Qajar dynasty. The war had the British oppose an attempt by Iran to press its claim on the city of Herat. Though Herat had been part of Iran under the Qajar dynasty when the war broke out, it had declared itself independent under its own rebellious emir and placed itself under the protection of the British in India and in alliance with the Emirate of Kabul, the predecessor of the modern state of Afghanistan. The British campaign was successfully conducted under the leadership of Major General Sir James Outram in two theatres: on the southern coast of Persia near Bushehr and in southern Mesopotamia. The war resulted in the Persians withdrawing from Herat and signing a new treaty to surrender its claims on the city and the British withdrawing from southern Iran.

In the context of The Great Game, the Anglo–Russian contest for influence in Central Asia, the British wished Afghanistan to remain an independent country with friendly relation as a buffer state against Russian expansion towards India. They opposed an extension of Persian influence in Afghanistan because of the perception that Persia was unduly influenced by Russia. The Persian influence on Central Asia had caused the creation of Greater Iran; although they knew of the influence, the British had never attacked Persia. Persia had over 12 foreign provinces under its imperial control. It made a fresh attempt in 1856 and succeeded in taking Herat on 25 October, in violation of an existing Anglo Persian Treaty. In response, the British governor general in India, acting on orders from London, declared war on 1 November. Separate from and preceding the dispute over Herat, was an incident concerning Mirza Hashem Khan, whom the British ambassador had hoped to appoint as a secretary to the mission in Tehran. The Persians objected and created a dispute that escalated after rumours appeared that the British ambassador had improper relations with the man's wife, who was the sister of the Shah's main wife. The dispute escalated further when the Persians arrested the woman; the British ambassador broke relations when they refused to release her. Indeed, the initial mobilization of British forces began in response to the incident although it is unlikely that the British would have gone beyond the occupation of one or two islands in the Persian Gulf if the issue of Herat had not arisen.

Shortly before 1:00 PM, the approaching British army saw the Persian garrison's vedettes and reconnoitering parties. By the time the British regiments had moved into their positions, the Persian army decided to withdraw from Borazjan and avoid a direct confrontation there. The general noted that Tehran had planned to extend its reinforcements to 12 regiments of regular infantry with 35 guns, while the provincial governors were preparing to conscript 4,000 irregular infantry from among the local tribes. Outram's sense of urgency in his letter to the Governor General of India dated 14 February 1857 was visible through his concern for the prospective loss of Bushehr should Iran raise a larger than expected army. Tahmasp Mirza Mo’ayed ol Dowleh was the Governor General (Nawab Vala) of the province of Fars during the Anglo Persian War. By order of Tahmasp Mirza, the 1st Arab Regiment of Brig. Gen. (Sartip) Reza Qoli Khan Arab, stationed in Kazerun, was to join the other regional regiments raised under Shoja ol Molk. For the duration of the war, Tahmasp Mirza granted Reza Qoli Khan control of the Inanlu and Baharlu regiments. On 14 Jumada l Ula, Reza Qoli Khan left the Persian encampment with a contingent of 400 from the 1st Arab Regiment and 2 field guns to gather additional rations and supplies for the province's defense. During his sortie, Reza Qoli Khan was joined by 300 troops from the 1st Qashqai Regiment with one piece of artillery. The Persian cavalrymen aimed to instill fear and cause confusion among the British rank and file by sounding English bugle calls. Given that English officers were once employed by the Qajar military, the Persian army was well versed in several standard bugle calls that the British used. The buglers of the Qashqai cavalry sounded a “Cease Fire” and “Incline to the Left” order which had no effect on the Highlanders, but the 20th Native Infantry reportedly stopped firing, thinking that it was their own force firing on them. The Persian light skirmishers fired a salvo and then stopped firing in that direction. The Persian cavalry engaged the 78th Highlanders head on at various points during the skirmish. The British army adopted an oblong formation as the five heavy guns of the Persian artillery opened fire with round shots. While the Persian artillery had calculated the range very accurately, there were few casualties given the lengthy bombardment. However, one shot dealt considerable damage to the 64th Regiment and took off a foot from Lieutenant Greentree, while severely wounding Captain Mackler. During this engagement, Outram's horse fell and rolled over him, rendering the general incapacitated for the duration of the ambush. The Chief of his staff, Colonel Lugard took command of the British forces and quietly covered the mishap, ensuring few others knew of Outram's condition until the next morning.

The Persian guns continued to fire on British positions until dawn. The Persian army had gathered near the British encampment and prepared for a battle. Ravanji cites the Persian army as 7,000 troops in total while Sandes lists the Persian troops as being 8,000 strong, composed of 6,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry. On the morning of 8 February, the Persian army under Shoja ol Molk drew up in line with the right flank of its infantry resting on the walled village of Khushab. The left flank of the Persian army was covered by a round fortalice tower. Shoja ol Molk had ordered two rising mounds placed at the center of the Persian infantry. He ordered the bulk of the Persian guns placed at the center and had deep nullahs covering the right front and flank. The Qashqai cavalry was led by Sohrab Khan, the hereditary chief of the Qashqai peoples native to the region. As the morning mist cleared, the two sides began firing their cannons at each other's positions. The British brigades began maneuvering into different positions, moving up as they deployed. The British army formed two lines, with the first consisting of the 78th Highlanders and a contingent of Indian sappers to their right, the rest included the 26th Regiment Native Infantry, the 2nd European Light Infantry, and the 4th Rifle Regiment at the far left of the line. The second line included her Majesty's 64th Regiment to the right, the 20th Regiment Native Infantry, and the Belooch Battalion to the left. Reza Qoli Khan Arab commanded the Inanlu, Baharlu and 1st Arab Regiment. The Persian army relied primarily on the Sarbaz from its reformed Nezam Regiments as opposed to the irregular infantry outside the auspices of the Qajar military. As such, Shoja ol Molk refused to consider inviting the Tangestani Braves (Daliran e Tangestan) to the defense of Borazjan. As the British lines advanced, Hunt and Townsend cite few casualties among the Highlanders and 26th Native Infantry but note that the first brigade, first division fared worse against the Persian bombardment. The second brigade, first division is noted to have suffered equally with more dead among the 2nd European Light Infantry. The British artillery resumed the firing after advancing to closer action, which slackened the degree of the Persian bombardment. Sohrab Khan charged forward with the Qashqai cavalry on the Persian left flank which were met halfway by the squadrons of the 3rd Cavalry and Tapp's irregulars. The British infantry lines rapidly advanced to meet the Persian army in closer action. As the British cavalry advanced on the right, the 3rd Bombay Light Cavalry and the Poona Horse charged the Nezam Infantry Regiments on the left flank of the Persian line. Under musket and cannon fire, the 1st Qashqai Regiment of Fars entered an infantry square formation with kneeling ranks and sustained the charge of the 3rd Cavalry. The Persian infantry fired volleys at the charging British cavalrymen. In the close action, the Persian regiment's standard bearer was shot, and the standard was taken by the 3rd Cavalry. The standard, which has the phrase “God’s hand is above all things” (يد الله فوق عداهم) etched into it, now rests atop the Poona Horse Regiment's standard. For publicity, the English media capitalized on the action as the most gallant event of the war. Two Victoria Crosses were awarded to the Commander's Adjutant Lieutenant Arthur Thomas Moore for first breaking into the square, and Captain John Grant Malcolmson. Upon charging the 1st Qashqai's square, Moore's horse was shot and bayoneted, falling on its rider. The infantry to the right of the Persian left flank began fleeing in a disorderly manner, despite no major altercation with the British lines in front. In contrast, Townshend and Hunt highlight that the Nezam Regiments protecting the Persian left flank soon retired with order. The Persian cavalry regiments remained on the battlefield, posing a threat to the British rear and the wounded. However, the long range of the new Enfield rifles hindered the Persian cavalry, which made off before 10:00 AM. The British record cited one officer and 18 men killed, with four officers and 60 wounded. Other records, however, cite 220 killed and 64 wounded. The British claimed the Persian casualties to be approximately 700, and considered the battle a British victory. By 10:00 AM, the British army regrouped a short distance to the right of the battlefield before resuming the march back to Bushehr. Out of fear of the raids and ambushes by Tangestani guerilla fighters, the British army decided against taking the road from Chahkootah. Outram instead made his way to Shif and took the coastal passage back to Bushehr. Despite Outram's decision, the British expedition through Shif was still met by an ambush from the guerilla fighters of Ziarat. Shoja ol Molk had retreated to Khesht and wrote despondently to the Shah that the Persian army was in dire need of reinforcements after the battle. By 14 February, Tehran had decided to relieve Shoja ol Molk of his command due to the retreat at the Battle of Khoshab. Mirza Mohammad Khan Qajar Dolu, Commandant of the Shah's Bodyguard was to assume command of the southern Persian army. Mirza Mohammad Khan set out to reorganize the Fars division with equipment costing 50,000 tomans, gold mounted swords, and robes of honour. Hamzeh Mirza's royal presence granted the new leadership of the Persian army the full powers to negotiate with Outram. However, at this stage the Qajar court had not given any indications of a desire to communicate with the British expeditionary force. The British army resumed its march back to Bushehr but in deplorable conditions; torrential rains created mud deep enough to pull a man's boots from his feet. The troops went through a harrowing ordeal but finally reached Bushire on 10 February: On 9 February, the troops halted at the village's well until 2:00 PM amid heavy rainfall. The regiments reached the camp on the morning of 10 February. During the two or three days of rest, Brigadier General Havelock took command of the second division and Brigadier Hamilton took control of the division's first brigade. The British army began constructing a sequence of redoubts and a Martello tower at the center of their entrenchment. During this time, heavy rain and damp weather persisted, making rest more difficult. Several companies of the light battalion and guns from the mountain train joined the British force during this period. The arrival of the 23rd Native Light Infantry and a troop of horse artillery contributed to motivation for contemplated attack on Mohammareh. In anticipation of a potential assault on Mohammareh, the Persian military focused its best available batteries there. Outram believed that the Persian government could not raise more troops beyond those stationed at Mohammareh and the army the British faced at Khushab. Outram did not expect the Shah to recall his expeditionary force under Soltan Morad Mirza Hesam ol Saltaneh from Herat. The British believed that they could coerce the Shah into accepting their demands by employing the semi autonomous demographic of Iran's northwest against the Persian government. Namely, Outram believed that the Chaab, Bakhtiari and Feyli were particularly resistant to Persian authority and considered negotiating an alliance with them. The British reported seeing the fires of the enemy on the hills surrounding their camp. In response, the Poona Horse expanded the range of its patrols, but did not report any confrontations. In his correspondence with Governor General Canning, Outram reported that the total size of the new forces raised between Shiraz and Khesht for Mirza Mohammad Khan's army was 27,800 men with 85 guns. Of this army, 2,000 were attributed to cavalry, 3,000 Tofangchi Infantry (Musketeers), and 31 regiments of regular infantry at 800 each. This army was exclusive of the 10,000 to 13,000 troops and 16 guns estimated to be garrisoned at Mohammareh under Prince Khanlar Mirza. He was to await the arrival of General Mirza Mohammad Khan Qajar Dolu, at which point he would make over all of his troops and return to Shiraz. Jafar Qoli Khan Ilkhani was stationed at Shiraz with a cavalry detachment of 3,000. The three contingents were to make their way to Nanizak through different roads so as to not exhaust the provisions on the route. Outram decided that Major General Stalker was to remain in command at Bushehr along with Brigadiers Wilson, Honnor, and Tapp. The troops that would stay in the encampment included two field batteries, the mountain train, the entire cavalry of the first division, three companies from her Majesty's 64th and the 78th Highlanders, the 4th rifles, 20th Native Infantry, and the Belooch battalion. The force at Bushehr numbered around 3,000. This left just under 4,000 troops under the command of Outram. By this point, the defence of Mohammareh was given to Prince Khanlar Mirza commanding seven regular regiments composed of 13,000 infantry and cavalry in total. The British army would counter the Persian bombardment with the broadsides of the Clive and Falkland sloops as well as the Ajdaha, Feroze, Semiramis, Victoria, and Assaye steamers. As the other ships reached the anchorage in the river, Persian cavalry patrols took cite of the enemy. The British troops were also made aware of a considerable detachment of irregular cavalry and infantry occupying the village of Mahamur, where pickets had been constructed along some ruined buildings. Upon his return from a visit to Mohammareh, Captain Maisonneuve have warned the British troops that the Persian defences were formidable and that Outram's forces could not easily take them. By 15 March, the Berenice steamer brought the headquarters of the Highlanders with Brigadier General Havelock and the staff of the second division. Lieutenant Sinclair of the 78th Highlanders had died a few days prior to departure due to fever. Hunt & Townshend and Ballard cite Stalker's main motive for suicide as a loss of mental balance and macular degeneration. Outram left Colonel John Jacob in command of the garrison at Bushehr. In the night of 17 March, Commodore E. Ethersey, who Rear Admiral Henry Leeke had appointed in command of the British navy at Bushehr, also committed suicide. By 24 March, the rendezvous point was set to three miles below the Persian fortifications. As some of the British forces disembarked and assembled, a considerably large party of Persian reconnoitrers sighted the enemy within firing range. However, the Persian troops did not engage the British. On the same night, the British placed two 8 and two 5 inch mortars northward behind a low swampy island facing the Persian army's most powerful battery. The Persian soldiers were noted to have been mid prayer for Fajr. As such, it took Khanlar Mirza's artillerymen a few minutes to identify where the missiles came from. As the Persian batteries began to return fire by 6:00 AM, the British attack ships advanced and began to engage them. Arab inhabitants on the Turkish side of the border had gathered to watch the battle, but as some of the Persian shots ricocheted in their direction, they dispersed. At this point, Commodore Rennie hoisted the signal for the British flotilla carrying the troops. The Persian guns managed to cut the rigging and damage the hull of the Berenice, which carried Havelock and the 78th Highlanders, as she entered within 100 yards of the Persian battery. The transports disembarked about 100 yards above the Persian army's north battery. The disembarkation lasted an hour and went unopposed. The Persian army of 13,000 made its way to Ahvaz along the Karun river. Most of the forces were soon inducted into operations in Central India to quell the Indian Mutiny in which both Havelock and Outram would distinguish themselves at the siege of Lucknow.

Negotiations in Constantinople between Persian Ambassador Farrokh Khan and British Ambassador Stratford de Redcliffe ultimately broke down over British demands for the Persians replace their prime minister (Sadr e Azam). News of the onset of fighting resulted in a formal rupture of talks, but discussions soon began again in Paris, and both sides signed a peace treaty on 4 March in which the Shah agreed to withdraw from Herat and to refrain from further interference in the affairs of Afghanistan. In the treaty, the Persians agreed to withdraw from Herat, to apologise to the British ambassador on his return, to sign a commercial treaty, and to co operate in suppressing the slave trade in the Persian Gulf. The British agreed not to shelter opponents of the Shah in the embassy and abandoned the demand of replacing the prime minister and requiring territorial concessions to the Imam of Muscat, a British ally. The Persians faithfully withdrew from Herat, which allowed the British to return their troops to India, where they were soon needed for combat in the Indian Mutiny. Herat returned to more direct Afghan control when it was retaken by Dost Mohammed Khan in 1863.

Three Victoria Crosses were awarded during the expedition to captain John Augustus Wood, captain John Grant Malcolmson and lieutenant Arthur Thomas Moore.

A total of four battle honours were awarded for this campaign, namely, 'Persia', 'Reshire', and 'Koosh Ab' in 1858, and 'Bushire' in 1861.