Кумран: Археологический комплекс на Западном берегу реки Иордан
Qumran
Кумран: археологический комплекс на Западном берегу, известный благодаря находкам свитков Мертвого моря и связью с эссеями. История, раскопки, Израиль.
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Введение
Археологический памятник на Западном берегу реки Иордан
Archaeological site in the West Bank
Кумран (; خربة قمران Khirbet Qumran) — археологический памятник на Западном берегу реки Иордан, находящийся под управлением Национального парка Кумран в Израиле. Он расположен на сухом мергельном плато примерно в от северо-западного берега Мертвого моря, примерно к югу от исторического города Иерихона и вблизи современного израильского поселения и кибуца Калья. Поселение эллинистического периода было построено во время правления хасмонейского лидера Иоанна Гиркана I или несколько позже. Кумран был населен еврейской сектой позднего периода Второго Храма, которую большинство ученых отождествляют с эссеями, однако выдвигались предположения и о других еврейских группах. Он был заселен большую часть времени до 68 года н.э. и был разрушен римлянами во время Первой еврейско-римской войны, возможно, не позднее 73 года н.э. Впоследствии он использовался еврейскими повстанцами во время восстания Бар-Кохбы. Сегодня Кумран наиболее известен как поселение, расположенное ближе всего к пещерам Кумрана, где были спрятаны свитки Мертвого моря – пещеры в отвесных пустынных скалах и под ними, на мергельном плато. Основные раскопки в Кумране проводил Ролан де Во в 1950-х годах, а позднее были проведены и другие археологические экспедиции. С 1967 года, после Шестидневной войны, Кумран находится под управлением Управления природы и парков Израиля.
Qumran (; خربة قمران Khirbet Qumran) is an archaeological site in the West Bank managed by Israel's Qumran National Park. It is located on a dry marl plateau about from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, about south of the historic city of Jericho, and adjacent to the modern Israeli settlement and kibbutz of Kalya. The Hellenistic period settlement was constructed during the reign of Hasmonean leader John Hyrcanus or somewhat later. Qumran was inhabited by a Jewish sect of the late Second Temple period, which most scholars identify with the Essenes; however, other Jewish groups were also suggested. It was occupied most of the time until and was destroyed by the Romans during the First Jewish–Roman War, possibly as late as 73 CE. It was later used by Jewish rebels during the Bar Kokhba revolt. Today, the Qumran site is best known as the settlement nearest to the Qumran Caves where the Dead Sea Scrolls were hidden, caves in the sheer desert cliffs and beneath, in the marl terrace. The principal excavations at Qumran were conducted by Roland de Vaux in the 1950s, and several later digs have been carried out. Since the 1967 Six Day War, Qumran has been managed by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority.
История
С тех пор как в 1947–1956 годах были обнаружены свитки Мертвого моря, в Кумране проводились масштабные раскопки. Было обнаружено около 900 свитков. Большинство из них были написаны на пергаменте, а некоторые – на папирусе. Обнаружены цистерны, иудейские ритуальные бани (миквы) и кладбища, а также обеденный или зал для собраний и остатки верхнего этажа, который, по мнению некоторых, служил скрипторием, а также печи для обжига керамики и башня. Многие ученые полагают, что это место было домом для еврейской секты, предположительно ессеев. Однако, по мнению Лоуренса Шиффмана, устав общины, ее особое внимание к священству и наследию саддукеев, а также другие детали указывают на секту, ориентированную на саддукеев, отличную от различных ессейских группировок или являющуюся одной из них. Другие предлагают несектантские интерпретации, некоторые из которых исходят из предположения, что это был хасмонейский форт, впоследствии переоборудованный в виллу для состоятельной семьи или производственный центр, возможно, керамическую фабрику или подобное предприятие.
Since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947–1956, extensive excavations have taken place in Qumran. Nearly 900 scrolls were discovered. Most were written on parchment and some on papyrus. Cisterns, Jewish ritual baths, and cemeteries have been found, along with a dining or assembly room and debris from an upper story alleged by some to have been a scriptorium as well as pottery kilns and a tower. Many scholars believe the location was home to a Jewish sect, probably the Essenes. But, according to Lawrence Schiffman, the rules of the community, its heavy stress on priesthood and the Zadokite legacy, and other details indicate a Sadducean oriented sect either distinct from or one of the various Essene groupings. Others propose non sectarian interpretations, some of these starting with the notion that it was a Hasmonean fort that was later transformed into a villa for a wealthy family, or a production center, perhaps a pottery factory or something similar.
Кумранские кладбища
К востоку от места было обнаружено большое кладбище. Помимо этого основного кладбища, существуют также три отдельных его расширения, а также северное кладбище (примерно в 10 минутах ходьбы от основного) и кладбище к югу от Вади Кумран. В большинстве могил обнаружены останки мужчин, однако найдены и женские захоронения, хотя некоторые погребения могут относиться к средневековому периоду. Раскопки проводились лишь на небольшой части могил, поскольку еврейский закон запрещает раскопки кладбищ. На кладбище Кумрана захоронено более тысячи тел. Одна из теорий предполагает, что это останки представителей нескольких поколений сектантов, другая – что тела были доставлены в Кумран, поскольку захоронение там было проще, чем в более скалистой местности. Свитки были найдены в серии из одиннадцати пещер вокруг поселения, некоторые из которых доступны только через само поселение. Некоторые исследователи утверждают, что пещеры служили постоянными библиотеками секты, о чем свидетельствуют остатки системы полок. Другие полагают, что некоторые пещеры также использовались в качестве убежищ для жителей окрестностей. Многие тексты, найденные в пещерах, отражают общепринятые иудейские верования и обычаи, в то время как другие свидетельствуют о различных, уникальных или малых религиозных течениях и практиках. Некоторые ученые считают, что эти тексты описывают верования жителей Кумрана, которые могли быть эссеями, или же служили убежищем для сторонников традиционной священнической семьи Задокитов, противостоявших хасмонейским священникам-царям. Литературное послание, опубликованное в 1990-х годах, содержит обоснование создания общины, некоторые из которых перекликаются с аргументами саддукеев в Талмуде. По всей видимости, большинство свитков было спрятано в пещерах во время смуты, связанной с Первой Иудейско-Римской войной (66–73 гг. н.э.), хотя некоторые из них могли быть помещены туда и ранее.
A large cemetery was discovered to the east of the site. Besides this primary cemetery, there are also three separate extensions of it, as well as the north cemetery (about 10 minutes away from the primary) and a cemetery south of Wadi Qumran. While most of the graves contain the remains of males, some females were also discovered, though some burials may be from medieval times. Only a small portion of the graves were excavated, as excavating cemeteries is forbidden under Jewish law. Over a thousand bodies are buried at Qumran cemetery. One theory is that bodies were those of generations of sectarians, while another is that they were brought to Qumran because burial was easier there than in rockier surrounding areas. The scrolls were found in a series of eleven caves around the settlement, some accessible only through the settlement. Some scholars have claimed that the caves were the permanent libraries of the sect, due to the presence of the remains of a shelving system. Other scholars believe that some caves also served as domestic shelters for those living in the area. Many of the texts found in the caves appear to represent widely accepted Jewish beliefs and practices, while other texts appear to speak of divergent, unique, or minority interpretations and practices. Some scholars believe that some of these texts describe the beliefs of the inhabitants of Qumran, who may have been Essenes, or the asylum for supporters of the traditional priestly family of the Zadokites against the Hasmonean priest/kings. A literary epistle published in the 1990s expresses reasons for creating a community, some of which resemble Sadducean arguments in the Talmud. Most of the scrolls seem to have been hidden in the caves during the turmoil of the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), although some of them may have been deposited earlier.
Ранний анализ площадки
Европейские исследователи знали о месте Хирбет-Кумран с XIX века. Первоначальное внимание ранних исследователей было сосредоточено на кладбище, начиная с де Сольси в 1851 году. Фактически, первые раскопки в Кумране (до развития современной методологии) были раскопками захоронений на кладбище, проведенными Генри Пулом в 1855 году, а затем Чарльзом Клермонтом Ганно в 1873 году. В декабре 1856 года Кумран посетили Альберт Айзекс, британский консул Джеймс Финн и фотограф Джеймс Грэм. Айзекс отметил относительно кумранской башни: "Вряд ли можно сомневаться, что это была башня или укрепление какого-то рода. Местоположение выгодное и хорошо подходит для оборонительных действий". Позже Финн предположил, что Кумран был "каким-то древним фортом с цистерной". Британский ученый Эрнест Уильям Гурни Мастерман посетил Кумран несколько раз в 1900–1901 годах. Наблюдая за расположением Кумрана на вершине плато с видом на источники Эйн-Фешха, он пришел к выводу, что руины "вполне могли быть когда-то небольшой крепостью". Мастерман также задавался вопросом, почему небольшой форт нуждался бы в кладбище, насчитывающем более тысячи гробниц. Густав Далман посетил Кумран в 1914 году и однозначно определил Кумран как бург, или форт. Археолог Майкл Ави-Йона согласился с определением Далманом Кумрана как форта и опубликовал карту, на которой остатки Кумрана были обозначены как часть цепи крепостей вдоль юго-восточной иудейской границы.
The site of Khirbet Qumran had been known to European explorers since the 19th century. The initial attention of the early explorers was focused on the cemetery, beginning with de Saulcy in 1851. In fact, the first excavations at Qumran (prior to the development of modern methodology) were of burials in the cemetery, conducted by Henry Poole in 1855 followed by Charles Clermont Ganneau in 1873. Albert Isaacs, British counsel James Finn, and photographer James Graham visited Qumran in December 1856. Isaacs stated regarding Qumran's tower, "It can hardly be doubted that this formed a tower or stronghold of some kind. The situation is commanding, and well adapted for defensive operations." Finn later suggested Qumran was "some ancient fort with a cistern". The British scholar Ernest William Gurney Masterman visited Qumran on several occasions between 1900 and 1901. After observing the positioning of Qumran atop a plateau overlooking the ‘Ein Feshkha Springs, he concluded the ruins "may have very well been once a small fortress". Masterman also questioned why a small fort would require a graveyard of over one thousand tombs. Gustaf Dalman visited Qumran in 1914, and explicitly identified Qumran as a burg, or fort. Archaeologist Michael Avi Yonah agreed with Dalman's identification of Qumran as a fort and published a map that identified the remains at Qumran as part of a string of fortresses along the southeastern Judean border.
Интерпретации Де Во
Де Во интерпретировал свои находки в Кумране, основываясь (по крайней мере частично) на информации из свитков Мертвого моря, которые продолжали обнаруживаться в близлежащих пещерах во время его раскопок. Де Во пришел к выводу, что останки в Кумране были оставлены сектанстской религиозной общиной. Используя свои раскопки и текстовые источники, в том числе свитки Мертвого моря и исторические свидетельства, записанные Плинием Старшим, Филоном и Иосифом Флавием, Де Во заключил, что жители этого места были сектой строго соблюдающих ритуал иудеев, называемых ессеями. Эта гипотеза, известная как «кумранско-ессейская гипотеза», предполагает, что первоначальными жителями поселения были эссеи, и что они основали это место в пустыне в религиозных целях. Он интерпретировал комнату над локусом 30 как «скрипторий», поскольку обнаружил там чернильницы. В остатках верхнего этажа была обнаружена оштукатуренная скамья. Де Во пришел к выводу, что именно здесь эссеи могли переписывать некоторые свитки Мертвого моря. Де Во также интерпретировал локус 77 как «рефекторий», или общую трапезную, основываясь на обнаружении многочисленных наборов чаш в близлежащей «кладовой» локуса 89. Кроме того, де Во интерпретировал многие из многочисленных ступенчатых цистерн как «микваот», или еврейские ритуальные бани, из-за их сходства с несколькими ступенчатыми и перегородчатыми ритуальными банями возле Храмовой горы в Иерусалиме. Относительно свитков Де Во осторожно заявил: «Рукописи переписывались в скриптории Кумрана. Мы также можем предположить, что некоторые произведения были составлены в Хирбет-Кумране. Но дальше мы не можем идти». Он полагал, что эссеи позднее спрятали свитки в близлежащих пещерах, когда почувствовали угрозу своей безопасности. Роланд де Во умер в 1971 году, не представив полного отчета о раскопках в Кумране. В 1986 году Библейская школа поручила бельгийскому археологу Роберту Донселю опубликовать окончательные результаты раскопок де Во. Предварительные результаты были представлены на конференции в Нью-Йорке в 1992 году, но окончательный отчет так и не был подготовлен. По словам Полин Донцель-Вуте, окончательный отчет было невозможно написать, поскольку многие артефакты были утеряны или повреждены (в частности, по словам Донселей, некоторые монеты, раскопанные Роланом де Во в Кумране, были утеряны). Чтобы восполнить этот пробел, в 1994 году École опубликовала синтез полевых записей де Во. Этот том включал несколько сотен фотографий, 48 страниц измерений и краткие описания полевых дневников. В 2003 году был опубликован английский перевод синтеза полевых записей. Две более поздние книги, посвященные интерпретации раскопок де Во, были опубликованы Жаном Батистом Юмбером в 2003 и 2016 годах. Однако не все археологические находки де Во из Кумрана (которые хранятся в Музее Рокфеллера) были опубликованы; некоторые из них до сих пор недоступны для ученых и общественности.
De Vaux interpreted his findings at Qumran based (at least in part) upon information in the Dead Sea Scrolls—which continued to be discovered in the nearby caves throughout his excavations. De Vaux concluded that the remains at Qumran were left by a sectarian religious community. Using his excavations as well as textual sources, including the Dead Sea Scrolls and the historical accounts recorded by Pliny the Elder, Philo, and Flavius Josephus, De Vaux's conclusion was that the inhabitants of the site were a sect of highly ritualistic Jews called the Essenes, a conclusion that has come to be known as the "Qumran–Essene hypothesis". This hypothesis suggests that the original residents of the settlement were the Essenes, and that they established the site in the desert for religious purposes. He interpreted the room above locus 30 as a "scriptorium" because he discovered inkwells there. A plastered bench was also discovered in the remains of an upper story. De Vaux concluded that this was the area where the Essenes could have written some of the Dead Sea Scrolls. De Vaux also interpreted locus 77 as a "refectory", or a community dining hall, based on the discovery of numerous sets of bowls in the nearby "pantry" of locus 89. Additionally, de Vaux interpreted many of the numerous stepped cisterns as "miqva’ot", or Jewish ritual baths, due to their similarity to several stepped and partitioned ritual baths near the Jerusalem Temple Mount. Regarding the scrolls De Vaux cautiously stated that "manuscripts were copied in the scriptorium of Qumran We may also suppose that certain works were composed at Khirbet Qumran. But beyond this we cannot go." He believed that the Essenes later hid the scrolls in the nearby caves when they felt their safety was in danger. Roland de Vaux died in 1971 without having provided a full report on the excavations at Qumran. In 1986 the École Biblique appointed the Belgian archaeologist Robert Donceel to the task of publishing the final results of de Vaux's excavations. Preliminary findings were presented at a conference in New York in 1992, but a final report never eventuated. According to Pauline Donceel Voûte the final report was impossible to write, because many artifacts had been lost or corrupted (in particular, according to the Donceels, some of the coins excavated by Roland de Vaux from Qumran had been lost.) To fill the gap, the École had a synthesis of de Vaux's field notes published in 1994. This volume included several hundred photographs, 48 pages of measurement, and summary descriptions of the field diaries. An English translation of the field notes synthesis was published in 2003. Two later books, devoted to the interpretation of the excavations of de Vaux, were published by Jean Baptiste Humbert in 2003 and 2016. However, not all of de Vaux's archaeological findings from Qumran (which are stored in the Rockefeller Museum) have yet been published; some are still inaccessible to scholars and the public.
Дальнейшие раскопки и исследования
Хотя раскопки де Во в Кумране были весьма масштабными и, следовательно, являются важнейшим источником информации о поселении, после завершения его работы было проведено несколько новых раскопок. Поскольку де Во оставил мало неисследованного на поселении, последующие археологи часто обращались к другим участкам для продолжения исследований, включая отвалы, образовавшиеся в ходе раскопок де Во. В 1960-х годах, по словам Кэтрин Мерфи, Джон Аллегро и Соломон Стекколл провели ряд неопубликованных раскопок в Кумране. Стекколл также работал на кладбище, раскопав двенадцать гробниц. В 1967 году реставрационные работы в Кумране проводил Р. В. Даджани из Департамента древностей Иордании. В 1984 и 1985 годах Джозеф Патрич и Игаэль Ядин провели систематическую разведку пещер и троп вокруг Кумрана. В период с 1985 по 1991 год Патрич раскопал пять пещер, включая пещеры 3Q и 11Q. К одним из выводов Патриха относилось то, что пещеры "не использовались как жилые помещения членами кумранской общины, а служили складами и укрытиями". С середины ноября 1993 года по январь 1994 года Управление древностей Израиля проводило работы в комплексе Кумрана и на близлежащих объектах в рамках "Операции «Свиток»" под руководством Амира Дрори и Ицхака Магена. Зимой 1995–1996 годов и в последующие сезоны Маген Броши и Ханан Эшель провели дополнительные раскопки в пещерах к северу от Кумрана, а также на кладбище и в пещерах марловых террас. С 1996 по 1999 год и позднее Ицхак Маген и Юваль Пелег проводили раскопки в Кумране под эгидой Управления национальных парков. Рэндалл Прайс и Орен Гатфельд проводили раскопки на Кумранском плато в сезонах 2002, 2004 и 2005 годов (и планируют сезон 2010 года). Были сделаны некоторые новые открытия.
Although de Vaux's excavations of Qumran were quite exhaustive, and thereby the most important source of information on the settlement, there have been several excavations since de Vaux finished his work. As de Vaux left little of the settlement unexcavated, later archaeologists have often turned elsewhere to continue research, including dump sites from de Vaux's excavations. During the 1960s, according to Catherine Murphy, there were some unpublished excavations at Qumran by John Allegro and by Solomon Steckoll. Steckoll also carried out work in the cemetery, excavating twelve tombs. In 1967 restoration work was performed at Qumran by R. W. Dajjani of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan. In 1984 and 1985 Joseph Patrich and Yigael Yadin carried out a systematic survey of the caves and pathways around Qumran. Between 1985 and 1991 Patrich excavated five caves, including Caves 3Q and 11Q. One of Patrich's conclusions was that the caves "did not serve as habitations for the members of the Dead Sea Sect, but rather as stores and hiding places". From mid November 1993 to January 1994 the Israel Antiquities Authority carried out works in the Qumran compound and nearby installations as part of "Operation Scroll" under the direction of Amir Drori and Yitzhak Magen. In the winter of 1995–1996 and later seasons Magen Broshi and Hanan Eshel carried out further excavations in the caves north of Qumran; they also dug in the cemetery and in marl terrace caves. From 1996 to 1999 and later Yitzhak Magen and Yuval Peleg carried out excavations at Qumran under the auspices of the National Parks Authority. Randall Price and Oren Gutfeld dug on the Qumran plateau, seasons in 2002, 2004 and 2005 (and plan a 2010 season). Some new discoveries have been made.
Недавний археологический анализ
Большинство мелких находок, сделанных при раскопках де Во, были возвращены в Иерусалим для использования в последующих отчетах о раскопках в Кумране, но смерть Роланда де Во прервала работу над отчетами, и мелкие находки остались покрываться пылью на полках в запасных помещениях музея. В конце 1980-х годов археолог Роберт Донсел работал с материалами де Во, предприняв новую попытку опубликовать отчеты о раскопках. Он обнаружил артефакты, которые, по его мнению, не соответствовали модели религиозного поселения, включая "изысканное стекло и керамику". В 1992 году Полин Донсель Вуте предложила модель римской виллы, чтобы объяснить эти артефакты. В 2002 году археологи Минна и Кеннет Лённквист опубликовали свои археологические и пространственные исследования Кумрана, представив иной взгляд на интерпретацию поселения, включая астрономическую ориентацию некоторых сооружений в Кумране. Недавняя окончательная публикация французских раскопок, выполненная Жаном Баптистом Юмбером, содержащая свидетельства украшенного фриза, opus sectile, изящных колонн и т.д., указывает на фазу более обеспеченного проживания, "une grande maison", в Кумране.
Most of the small finds from the de Vaux excavations were taken back to Jerusalem to be used in later excavation reports for Qumran, but the death of Roland de Vaux brought a halt to the reports and the small finds were left to gather dust on shelves in museum backrooms. In the late 1980s, archaeologist Robert Donceel worked on the de Vaux materials in a new effort towards publishing excavation reports. He found artifacts he believed did not fit the religious settlement model, including "sophisticated glass and stoneware". In 1992 Pauline Donceel Voute put forward the Roman villa model in an attempt to explain these artifacts. In 2002 archaeologists Minna and Kenneth Lönnqvist published their archaeological and spatial studies at Qumran bringing another view to the settlement interpretations including the astronomical orientations of some structures at Qumran. A recent final publication of the French excavations by Jean Baptist Humbert outlining evidence of a decorated frieze, opus sectile, fine columns etc., indicates a phase of a wealthier occupation, "une grande maison", at Qumran.
Глиняная посуда
По словам Донцелей, разнообразие керамики, стекла и большое количество найденных в Кумране монет не согласуются с представлением о сектантском поселении. Эти материалы указывают на торговые связи в регионе и свидетельствуют о том, что Кумран, возможно, не был изолирован в греко-римский период. Рейчел Бар-Натан, основываясь на сходстве керамических находок в Кумране с находками во дворцах Хасмонеев и Ирода в Иерихоне, утверждает, что Кумран следует рассматривать как часть контекста Иорданской долины, а не как обособленный объект. Хотя цилиндрические "свитки-кувшины" из Кумрана когда-то считались уникальными, она приводит пример предполагаемой аналогичной находки в Иерихоне, указывает на существование схожей формы в Масаде и сообщает об обнаружении подобных кувшинов в Каландии. Бар-Натан, основываясь на данных из иерихонского дворца, отмечает, что "возможно проследить типологическое развитие этой группы кувшинов", то есть цилиндрических кувшинов. Ян Гунневег заметил, что предполагаемая единственная частичная параллель в Иерихоне – "частично сохранившийся венчик и горлышко с вертикальной ручкой-петлей" – на самом деле не является "свитком-кувшином". Сообщалось об обнаружении еще одного кувшина в Иордании, в более позднем захоронении возле Абилы, однако фотографии или рисунки не были опубликованы, и кувшин не был найден повторно, что показывает, что де Во искал параллели. Принимая во внимание подтипы керамики, настоящие цилиндрические "свитки-кувшины" не распространены за пределами Кумрана. Тем не менее, они явно не являются уникальными для Кумрана. Бар-Натан отметила "редкость этих кувшинов в период Второго Храма". О некоторых из предложенных параллелей из Масады Бар-Натан писала: "Похоже, что эта группа горшков для хранения была привезена (или разграблена?) из района Кумрана и, вероятно, также из Иерихонской равнины". По мнению израильских археологов Магена и Пелега, глина, найденная в цистернах, использовалась для керамических мастерских. Строительство кумранского акведука, который снабжал цистерны и бани, можно рассматривать как важный хронологический ориентир. Несмотря на некоторые разногласия в этой области, Стейси (2004) утверждает, что его следует датировать примерно 95–90 гг. до н.э., что соответствует периоду Ib де Во.
The range of pottery, glass and high quantity of coins found at Qumran do not sit well in the context of a sectarian settlement according to the Donceels. These materials point to trade connections in the area, and provide evidence that Qumran may not have been in a vacuum in the Graeco Roman period. Rachel Bar Nathan has argued from similarities between pottery finds at Qumran and at the Hasmonean and Herodian palaces of Jericho that Qumran should be seen as part of the Jordan valley context, rather than as an isolated site. While the cylindrical "scroll jars" from Qumran were once thought unique, she cites a proposed similar find at Jericho, shows a related form existed at Masada, and reports that such jars have been found at Qalandiya. Bar Nathan states from the Jericho palace data that, "It is possible to trace the typological development of this group of jars", i. e., the cylindrical jars. Jan Gunneweg observed that the supposed single partial parallel at Jericho – "a partly preserved rim and neck with a vertical loop handle" – is in fact not a "scroll" jar. Another one was reported found in Jordan in a later burial near Abila but no photos or drawings were published and the jar has not been relocated, showing de Vaux sought parallels. Taking into account subtypes of pottery, true cylindrical "scroll" jars are not common outside Qumran. They are, however, clearly not unique to Qumran. Bar Nathan noted the jar's "rarity in the Second Temple period". Of some of the proposed parallel Masada jars, Bar Nathan wrote "It seems that this group of storage jars was brought (or pillaged?) from the area of Qumran and probably also from the Plain of Jericho." According to the Israeli archaeologists Magen and Peleg, the clay found in the cisterns was used for pottery factory facilities. The construction of the Qumran aqueduct that fed the cisterns and the baths can be seen as an important chronological marker. Although there are some disagreements in this area, Stacey (2004) argues that it should be dated to around 95 90 BCE, which is during de Vaux’s Period Ib.
Нумизматические исследования
Монеты из Кумрана – одна из наиболее важных групп первоисточников, обнаруженных на этом древнем поселении. Большая часть исследований, посвященных хронологии, периодам обитания и истории Кумрана, основана на предварительном отчете и лекции первооткрывателя Кумрана, Ролана де Во, представленных в 1961 году и переведенных в 1973 году. Предварительный список кумранских бронзовых монет, а также полевой дневник Ролана де Во, относящийся к раскопкам, были опубликованы в 1994 году на французском языке, в 1996 году – на немецком, а в 2003 году – на английском. Первая реконструкция кумранской бронзовой чеканки, включающая полный каталог монет с обновленными и взаимосвязанными идентификациями, была выполнена Кеннетом Лённквистом и Минной Лённквист в 2005 году. Кроме того, в 1955 году в Кумране было обнаружено три важных клада серебряных монет. Первая партия кумранских серебряных монет была опубликована Марсией Шарабани в 1980 году. Два последних клада, находящихся в Аммане (Иордания), были опубликованы Кеннетом Лённквистом в 2007 году.
Coins from Qumran are one of the most important groups of primary evidence from the ancient site. Much of what has been written on the chronology, the occupational periods and the history of Qumran is based on the preliminary report and lecture by the original excavator, Roland de Vaux in 1961, which was translated in 1973. A tentative list of the Qumran bronze coins along with Roland de Vaux's field diary from the excavations was published in 1994 in French, in German in 1996 and in English in 2003. The first reconstruction of the Qumran bronze coinage, including a complete coin catalogue with up dated and cross referenced coin identifications, was done by Kenneth Lönnqvist and Minna Lönnqvist in 2005. Also in 1955, three very important silver coin hoards were found at Qumran. The first lot of the Qumran silver coins was published by Marcia Sharabani in 1980. The last two hoards located in Amman, Jordan, were published by Kenneth Lönnqvist in 2007.
Бронзовые монеты
В ходе раскопок де Во было обнаружено около 1250 монет (569 серебряных и 681 бронзовых) из Кумрана, однако сегодня часть кумранских монет утеряна, некоторые коллекции перемешаны, а записи не столь точны, как хотелось бы. Количество монет, найденных на этом месте, удивительно велико. Это свидетельствует о высокой монетизации поселения в эллинистический и римский периоды, то есть жители Кумрана не были общиной бедных и изолированных людей. Неудивительно, что в I веке н.э. денежный поток в Кумране мог быть значительным, учитывая археологические свидетельства торговли предметами роскоши, такими как стекло, датируемыми именно этим периодом. Анализ монет Кумрана показывает, что в экономической системе поселения в период его существования, начиная примерно с 150 г. до н.э. и до 73 г. н.э., не произошло существенных изменений в роли монет и денег. Важно отметить, что количество найденных в Кумране монет, согласно нумизматическим принципам сохранности древних монет, позволяет предположить, что в обращении находились миллионы бронзовых монет. Обнаруженные в Кумране бронзовые монеты, некоторые из которых датируются вторым и третьим годами Иудейской войны, указывают на то, что поселение продолжало функционировать в 68 г. н.э. и было разрушено не ранее 70 г. н.э., возможно, вплоть до 73 г. н.э. Монеты из Кумрана этого периода заканчиваются необычной серией бронзовых монет, отчеканенных в Аскалоне в 72/73 гг., откуда были отправлены вспомогательные войска для помощи римской армии в Первой Иудейско-римской войне (66–73 гг.). В 73 г. н.э. римляне взяли штурмом горную крепость Масада, расположенную также на западном берегу Мертвого моря. Весьма вероятно, что Кумран был разрушен в то же время, поскольку последние найденные в Кумране монеты – это те же необычные бронзовые монеты, отчеканенные в Аскалоне.
De Vaux's excavations uncovered about 1250 coins (569 silver and 681 bronze coins) altogether from Qumran, though today some Qumran coins have been lost, some lots mixed up, and records less accurate than ideal. There are a surprisingly high number of coins from the site. This means that the site was highly monetized in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, i. e. that the occupants of Qumran were not a community of poor and isolated people. That the flow of cash at Qumran may have been large in the 1st century CE is hardly surprising given the archaeological evidence of trade at Qumran in luxury goods such as glass, which is specifically dated to this period. The coin profile of Qumran shows that there do not appear to have been any major changes in the role of coins and money in the economic system at Qumran during any of the occupational periods from ca. 150 BCE. to 73 CE. Worth noting here is that the amount of coins found at Qumran suggests according to numismatic principles of loss and survival of ancient coins that millions of bronze coins must have circulated at Qumran. The bronze coins identified from Qumran, some dating to the second and third years of the Jewish War, indicate that the site was still in use in 68 CE and only destroyed after 70, perhaps as late as 73. The coins from Qumran of this period end with a peculiar series of bronze coins minted in 72/73 at Ascalon, which sent auxiliary troops to assist the Roman army in the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73). In 73 the Romans stormed the mountain fortress of Masada, which also was located on the western bank of the Dead Sea. It is more than likely that Qumran was destroyed this same time, as the coin finds from Qumran end with the same peculiar bronze coins minted at Ascalon.
Серебряные монеты
Согласно публикациям, датированным периодом до 2007 года, самой поздней серебряной монетой в кумранских кладах является тетрадрахма Тира, датированная 9/8 годом до н.э.
According to the publications prior to 2007, the most recent silver coin in the Qumran hoard(s) is a tetradrachm of Tyre from the year 9/8 BCE.
Анализ Лёнквиста за 2007 год
В 2007 году публикация основной части серебряных монет К. А. К. Лённквистом и его региональный анализ привели к новым интерпретациям относительно значения, хронологии и важности монет. По мнению Лённквиста, вновь датированные монеты в серебряных кладах позволяют установить самую раннюю возможную дату захоронения кладов – 52/3–66 гг. н.э., основываясь на интерпретации контрмарки. Однако археологический и нумизматический характер захоронений серебряных монет может указывать на то, что клады были спрятаны в начале III века н.э. Последняя монета была отчеканена в Риме между 206 и 210 гг. н.э., во время правления императора Каракаллы. Новое предположение состоит в том, что серебряные клады из Кумрана могут быть связаны с римскими военными кампаниями в регионе, которые широко засвидетельствованы в начале III века н.э. Вполне возможно также, что серебро составляло часть римских выплаты жалованья войскам местного гарнизона. По словам Лённквиста, технические данные, полученные при регистрации и документировании кумранских серебряных кладов в 2006–2007 годах, показали, что монеты происходили из партий, групп или наборов монет, которые были получены из одного или нескольких крупных платежей. Этот платёж мог поступить от монетного двора, банка или органа власти, например, из сокровищницы римской армии. Новые доказательства опровергают возможность того, что серебряные монеты могли быть собраны от отдельных лиц, например, в качестве налогов, или что Кумран мог быть региональным «налоговым домом». Новый анализ серебряных монет, проведённый в 2007 году, противоречит выводам де Во, Сейрига и Спийкермана, а также выводам Роберта Донцеля. Донцель был удивлён, обнаружив в музее Аммана незарегистрированные монеты, в частности, денарии Траяна, которые он посчитал привнесёнными извне. Оригинальные записи музея Аммана о кумранских кладах монет и мешки музея, в которых хранились монеты, не подтверждают гипотезу о том, что римские монеты II и III веков являются привнесёнными по отношению к тирийскому серебру. Кроме того, новая контрмарка, которая осталась незамеченной, предположительно датируется 52/53 гг. н.э., и греческие буквы на ней не соответствуют дате 9/8 г. до н.э., как другие контрмарки. Это означает, что археологически и нумизматически по крайней мере один, а вероятно, и два из трёх кладов были захоронены позднее даты, предложенной де Во – после 9/8 г. до н.э. Необычная и интенсивная связь штемпелей кумранских серебряных кладов позволяет предположить, что три клада были захоронены одновременно, то есть не ранее 52/53 гг. н.э. По словам Лённквиста, весьма необычный тип клада монет, найденный в Айн-Ханавиве в долине Иордана в начале 1960-х годов и опубликованный в «Израильском нумизматическом бюллетене», подтверждает его теорию о датировке трёх серебряных кладов из Кумрана III веком н.э. Этот клад монет из Айн-Ханавива охватывал сотни лет, начиная с эпохи Селевкидов и заканчивая монетами того же типа, чеканенными во время правления Септимия Севера в 210 году. Следовательно, по мнению Лённквиста, утверждение о более ранней датировке серебряных кладов необоснованно и противоречит первой полной записи кумранских серебряных кладов, сделанной им в 2007 году, которая включает в себя первые фотографии кладов монет и региональные нумизматические данные из других кладов. Уже было показано, что система датирования Кумрана и серебряных монет, предложенная де Во, основывалась на так называемом круговом аргументе: конец первого крупного периода поселения датировался после предполагаемой даты сокрытия кладов монет, что, в свою очередь, датировало сами клады. Тем не менее, теории Лённквиста подверглись критике со стороны Фархи и Прайса. Он отметил, что «существует явная непропорциональность между количеством гробниц и количеством жителей, для которых было достаточно места в зданиях». Это привело его к предположению, что пещеры могли использоваться в качестве жилья для его предполагаемых 200 жителей. Дж. Т. Милик несколько лет назад оценил среднюю численность населения в 150–200 человек, сравнив её с населением монастыря Мар-Саба, в котором в IX веке проживало 150 монахов, и с цифрой Иосифа Флавия о 3000 ессеев, из которых «по крайней мере пять процентов вели строгую монашескую жизнь». Э. М. Лаперрусаз оценивал население в 1428 человек. Маген Броши, проанализировав размер L77 (который он называет актовым залом), оценил, что там могло поместиться от 120 до 150 человек, к которым он добавил несколько десятков потенциальных жителей, что дало в общей сложности более 170 человек. С 1983 по 1987 год Иосиф Патрих проводил археологические исследования вокруг Кумрана и его пещер. Он пришёл к выводу, что пещеры были «складами и тайниками». Он не обнаружил следов постоянных жилищ-палаток и считал, что «жилые помещения следует искать внутри стен Хирбет-Кумрана, в основном на верхнем этаже». Патрих оценил численность населения всего в 50–70 человек. Маген Броши и Ханан Эшель, повторно исследовав пещеры и территорию вокруг Кумрана в 1995–1996 годах, позже указали на то, что оценка Патриха была слишком высокой для того, что мог предложить Кумран, снизив численность населения до 12–20 человек. Они вернулись к идее о пещерах (в основном искусственных, высеченных в мергельном террасе, большинство из которых не сохранились) и палатках (указывая на керамику и гвозди, найденные вдоль одной из троп возле Кумрана), сохранив оценку в 150–200 жителей. Ожидая публикации результатов исследований Броши и Эшеля, Патрих, предвидя их, усомнился в возможности того, что когда-то существовало «значительно больше пригодных для жизни пещер», высеченных в мергеле, указывая на отсутствие троп и подходящей местности. Он продолжил принижать значение гвоздей для жилищ-палаток без «дальнейших существенных доказательств» и вернулся к цифре «несколько десятков жителей, максимум пятьдесят». Джоди Магнес приняла оценку Броши, добавив: «Эта цифра лучше согласуется с наличием более 1000 столовых блюд в кладовой (L86)». Работая с соотношением численности населения в других древних поселениях, Йизхар Хиршфельд оценил население Кумрана следующим образом: «Если мы используем более низкое значение в пятнадцать человек на дунам [1000 м2], то получается, что в период Хасмонеев на территории Кумрана проживало всего около 20 человек». Ицхак Маген и Юваль Пелег вступили в дискуссию, комментируя, как можно было прокормить такое большое количество членов общины: «Если мы примем утверждение о том, что секта жила в Кумране около 170 лет, мы должны ожидать обнаружения сотен кухонных и пекарских печей, а также тысяч кухонных горшков». Вопрос о численности населения – сложный вопрос, как видно из вышеизложенных соображений. Многое зависит от интерпретации двух мест в Кумране – трапезной и кладовой. Поиски внемуральных жилых помещений не дали существенных доказательств. Исключая, по-видимому, чрезмерно высокую оценку Лаперрусаза, ряд предложений оценивают население Кумрана и его окрестностей от 20 до 200 человек.
The publication of the bulk of the silver coins by K. A. K. Lönnqvist, and his regional analysis, resulted, in 2007, in a new interpretations as to the importance, chronology and significance of the coins. According to Lönnqvist, the newly dated coins in the silver coin hoards give an earliest possible burial date for the coin hoards to 52/3–66 CE, based on an interpretation of a countermark. However, the archaeological and numismatic nature of the silver coin hoard burials may suggest that the coin hoards may have been buried in the early 3rd century. The final coin was minted in Rome between 206 and 210, during the reign of the emperor Caracalla. The new suggestion made is that the silver coin hoards from Qumran may be connected to Roman military campaigns in the region, as these are widely attested in the early 3rd century CE. It is also quite possible that the silver was part of Roman army payments made to troops in a local garrison. According to Lönnqvist, the technical evidence of the recording and documenting of the Qumran silver coin hoards in 2006–2007 showed that the coins came from lots, groups or batches of coins that originated in a few or one single large payment. This payment may have come from a mint, bank or an authority like the treasury of the Roman army. The new evidence refutes the possibility that the silver coins could have been collected from single individuals, for instance, as tax payments, or that Qumran could have been a regional 'tax house'. The new 2007 analysis of the silver coinage contradicts the findings of de Vaux, Seyrig, and Spijkerman as well as the findings of Robert Donceel. Donceel was surprised to find in the Amman museum unrecorded coins, notably denarius coins of Trajan, that he claimed were intrusive. The original Amman Museum records of the Qumran coin hoards and the museum bags where the coins were kept do not support the hypothesis that the 2nd and 3rd century Roman coins are intrusive in relation to the Tyrian silver. Furthermore, the new countermark that went unrecorded is apparently from 52/53 CE and the Greek letters in it do not support a date of 9/8 BCE, as the other countermarks. This means archaeologically and numismatically that at least one, but probably two minimum, of the three hoards post date de Vaux's suggestion of a burial date after 9/8 BCE. The unusual and intensive die linkage of the Qumran silver hoards suggest that the three hoards were buried at the same time, and this would mean at the earliest in 52/53 CE. According to Lönnqvist, a highly unusual type of coin hoard found at Ain Hanaziv in the Jordan Valley in the early 1960 and reported in the Israel Numismatic Bulletin supports his theory of a third century CE date for the three silver coin hoards from Qumran. This Ain Hanaziv coin hoard spanned hundreds of years, starting from the Seleucid era and ended with the same kind of coins from the reign of Septimius Severus in 210. Therefore, according to Lönnqvist, claiming an earlier date for the silver hoards is untenable and contradicts the first complete recording of the Qumran silver hoards made by him in 2007, which includes the first photographic evidence of the coin hoards, and the regional coin evidence from other hoards. It has already been shown that de Vaux's dating system of Qumran and the silver coin hoards was based on what is generally known as a circular argument; the end of the first major settlement period was dated after the assumed date of hiding of the coin hoards, which in turn dated the coin hoards themselves. Nevertheless, Lönnqvist's theories have been criticized by Farhi and Price. He noted that "[t]here is a manifest disproportion between the number of tombs and the number of inhabitants for whom there was room in the buildings". This led him to speculate whether the caves were used as lodgings for his estimated 200 inhabitants. J. T. Milik some years earlier provided an estimate of between 150 and 200 as the average population, working on the comparison with the population of the monastery of Mar Saba, which numbered 150 monks in the 9th century and from Josephus' figure of 3,000 Essenes calculating that "at least five per cent lived the strict monastic life". E. M. Laperrousaz went as high as 1,428 inhabitants. Magen Broshi, analyzing the size of L77 (which he calls an assembly hall), estimated that about 120 to 150 people could sit there, to which he added a few dozen candidates to the population, yielding over 170 people. From 1983 to 1987 Joseph Patrich carried out archaeological surveys around Qumran and its caves. He concluded that the caves were "stores and hiding places". He found no traces of permanent tent dwellings and that any "dwelling quarters should be sought inside the wall of Khirbet Qumran, mainly on the upper floor". Patrich estimated that the population was only 50–70 people. Magen Broshi and Hanan Eshel, revisiting the caves and the territory around Qumran in 1995–1996, later pointed out that Patrich's estimate was far too high for what Qumran could offer, reducing the number to 12–20. They turned back to caves (mainly artificial ones cut into the marl terrace most of which have not survived) and tents (pointing to pottery and nails found along one of the paths near Qumran), and staying with 150–200 inhabitants. While waiting for the publication of Broshi and Eshel's results, Patrich, anticipating them, doubted the possibility that there were once "significantly more habitable caves" cut into the marl, pointing to the lack of paths and suitable terrain. He went on to discount the significance of the nails for tent dwelling without "further substantial evidence and returned to a figure of "a few tens of residents, fifty at most". Jodi Magness accepted Broshi's estimate, adding "This number accords better than lower estimates with the presence of over 1000 dining dishes in the pantry (L86)." Working from ratios of populations in other ancient settlements, Yizhar Hirschfeld estimated the population of Qumran thus: "If we use the lower value of fifteen people per dunam [1,000 m2], it emerges that in the Hasmonean period only about 20 people occupied the site of Qumran. Yitzhak Magen and Yuval Peleg entered the discussion commenting on how one could feed such large numbers of community members: "Were we to accept the claim that the sect lived at Qumran for about 170 years, we would expect to find hundreds of cooking and baking ovens as well as thousands of cooking pots." The population question is a complex issue, as can be seen by the above considerations. Much hinges on interpretation of two locations at Qumran—the refectory and the pantry. The search for extramural dwelling quarters has failed to provide substantial evidence. Discounting Laperrousaz's apparently excessively high estimate, a number of proposals put the population in and around Qumran at between 20 and 200 people.
Гипотеза Кумрана-Эссена
Не было много серьезных возражений против интерпретации де Во Кумрана как поселения эссеев с момента ее представления. Хотя у археолога Э. М. Лаперрусаса были довольно отличные взгляды, члены команды де Во в целом придерживались той же версии, с незначительными отклонениями, включая Дж. Т. Милика и Ф. М. Кросса. Первоначальный содиректор раскопок де Во, Г. Ланкестер Хардинг, опубликовал в 1955 году статью, в которой представил Кумран как «здание, в котором учились Иоанн Креститель и, вероятно, Христос: Хирбет Кумран». Другие исследователи, не входившие в команду де Во, такие как Анри дель Медико, Соломон Цайтлин и Г. Р. Драйвер, предлагали альтернативные интерпретации, но их анализу не было уделено значительного и продолжительного внимания. В последнее время Лоуренс Х. Шиффман отстаивал тезис о том, что кумранские документы свидетельствуют о сектантской ориентации саддукеев, однако, хотя большинство ученых признают, что термин «эссены», вероятно, охватывал различные группы, саддукейская сектантская гипотеза остается маловероятной. Саймон Дж. Джозеф согласен с тем, что кумранское сообщество было частью движения эссеев, находясь под влиянием традиций Еноха, и добавляет, что они уделяли больше внимания эсхатологии и мессианизму. В 1960 году Карл Генрих Ренгсторф предположил, что Свитки Мертвого моря не были созданы жителями Кумрана, а происходили из библиотеки Иерусалимского храма, несмотря на то, что они были обнаружены вблизи Кумрана. (Основное иерусалимское предположение Ренгсторфа становится все более популярным с тех пор, как материалы раскопок де Во в Кумране были обнародованы в 1992 году.) Джеймс Х. Чарльзуорт в 1980 году предположил, что Кумран был разрушен в парфянской войне ок. 40 г. до н.э. Жан Батист Юмбер, опубликовавший полевые записи де Во, предлагает компромиссное решение в спорах вокруг Кумрана. Он признает, что поселение могло быть первоначально основано как вилла рустика, но затем было заброшено и вновь заселено эссеями в конце I в. до н.э. Юмбер утверждает, что это место также могло использоваться как место, где сектантские паломники, которым был запрещен въезд в Иерусалим, могли совершать паломничество. Минна Лённквист и Кеннет Лённквист применили к кумранским исследованиям подход контекстуальной археологии, с ее пространственными исследованиями и интерпретацией символического языка археологических данных, полагая, что текстологи, сосредоточившиеся исключительно на свитках, оторвали Свитки Мертвого моря от их археологического контекста. Лённквисты предположили, что ориентация поселения и могил указывает на намеренную схему, основанную на солнечном календаре. Исходя из этого, они утверждали, что поселение и кладбище связаны со Свитками Мертвого моря и ассоциируются с группой, близкой к эссеям, что находит наиболее близкие параллели в современной еврейской терапевтической группе, известной тем, что жила в Египте. Роберт Каргилл утверждает, что теория о том, что Кумран был основан как крепость Хасмонеев, не противоречит теории о том, что группа еврейских сектантов вновь заняла это место. Каргилл предполагает, что Кумран был основан как форт Хасмонеев (см. ниже, «Кумран как крепость»), заброшен, а затем повторно заселен еврейскими поселенцами, которые расширили поселение в коммунном, невоенном стиле и были ответственны за Свитки Мертвого моря. Некоторые критики результатов де Во возражали против использования Свитков Мертвого моря для интерпретации археологических останков в Кумране. Они утверждали, что эти останки следует интерпретировать независимо, без какого-либо влияния Свитков Мертвого моря. Различные переинтерпретации привели к различным выводам о месте. К ним относятся:
There were not many serious challenges to de Vaux's interpretation of the site of Qumran as a settlement of Essenes from the time it was introduced. While the archaeologist E. M. Laperrousaz, had some quite divergent views, members of de Vaux's team followed approximately the same narrative, with minor deviations, members including J. T. Milik, and F. M. Cross. De Vaux's initial dig co director, G. Lankester Harding, wrote an article in 1955 where he presented Qumran as "a building in which John the Baptist, and probably Christ, studied: Khirbet Qumran". Others outside de Vaux's team proposed other interpretations, people such as Henri del Medico, Solomon Zeitlin, and G. R. Driver, but their analyses received little lasting attention. More recently, Lawrence H. Schiffman has defended the thesis that the Qumran documents indicate a Sadducean sectarian orientation, but while scholars commonly grant that the term "Essenes" probably included a diversity of groups, the sectarian Sadducean hypothesis remains a minority opinion. Simon J. Joseph agrees that the Qumran community was a part of the Essene movement, under the influence of the Enoch traditions, adding that they possessed a stronger focus towards eschatology and messianism. In 1960 Karl Heinrich Rengstorf proposed that the Dead Sea Scrolls were not the product of the residents of Qumran, but came from the library of the Jerusalem Temple, despite their being discovered near Qumran. (Rengstorf's basic Jerusalem proposal has become increasingly more popular since the materials from de Vaux's excavations of Qumran were brought into the public arena in 1992.) James H. Charlesworth in 1980 proposed that Qumran was damaged in the Parthian war c. 40 BCE. Jean Baptiste Humbert, who published de Vaux's field notes, proposes a hybrid solution to the debate surrounding Qumran. He accepts that the site might have been originally established as a villa rustica, but that the site was abandoned and that it was reoccupied by Essenes in the late 1st century BCE. Humbert argues that the site may also have been used a place where sectarian pilgrims—barred from entering Jerusalem—may have celebrated the pilgrimage. Minna Lönnqvist and Kenneth Lönnqvist brought an approach to the Qumran studies based on contextual archaeology with its spatial studies and interpretation of symbolic language of the archaeological data, positing that text scholars, who had only focused their studies on the scrolls, had removed the Dead Sea Scrolls from their archaeological context. The Lönnqvists proposed that the orientations of the settlement and graves show they both belonged to an intentional scheme based on a solar calendar. From this, they argued that the settlement and cemetery are connected to the Dead Sea Scrolls and associated with an Essene type group, which finds the closest parallels in the contemporary Jewish Therapeutic group known to have lived in Egypt. Robert Cargill argues that the theory suggesting Qumran was established as a Hasmonean fortress is not incompatible with the theory proposing that a group of Jewish sectarians reoccupied the site. Cargill suggests that Qumran was established as a Hasmonean fort (see below, "Qumran as fortress"), abandoned, and later reoccupied by Jewish settlers, who expanded the site in a communal, non military fashion, and who were responsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls. Some who challenged de Vaux's findings took issue with the practice of using the Dead Sea Scrolls to interpret the archaeological remains at Qumran. They argued that these remains should be interpreted independently, without any influence from the Dead Sea Scrolls. Various reinterpretations have led to various conclusions about the site. These include:
Кумран как крепость
Первоначальное, незамеченное предположение о том, что Кумран был крепостью, получило новое подтверждение благодаря анализу Пессаха Бар-Адона. Используя данные раскопок де Во периода 1a, результаты собственных раскопок в Айн-эль-Гувейре, расположенном в 15 км к югу от Кумрана, и уровень 2 Мазара в 'Эн-Геди, Бар-Адон утверждал, что «эти крепости принадлежали Иоанну Гиркану, которому требовалась мощная и комплексная система обороны, контролирующая жизненно важные источники воды, сельскохозяйственные угодья, стада, переправы через Иордан, равнины Иерихона и караванные пути в Иудейской пустыне. Он превратил кумранский оазис Айн-Фешка, подобно оазису в 'Эн-Геди, в королевскую собственность и включил своих арендаторов в свои стратегические планы». Норман Голб поддержал идею о том, что поселение в Кумране было основано как крепость, и утверждал – вопреки преобладавшим в то время взглядам – что Кумран не был основан как резиденция сектантов, и что на этом месте вообще не было сектантов. Подобно Ренгсторфу, он предположил, что Свитки были созданы в Иерусалиме, но, в отличие от Ренгсторфа, Голб утверждает, что свитки происходили из разных библиотек по всему Иерусалиму и были спрятаны в пещерах евреями, спасавшимися от римлян во время политического восстания.
The overlooked early suggestion that Qumran was a fortress was given new life by the analysis of Pessach Bar Adon. Using de Vaux's Period 1a findings, his own excavations at Ain el Ghuweir 15 km south of Qumran, and Mazar's level 2 at 'En Gedi, Bar Adon argued, "these fortresses [belonged] to John Hyrcanus, who needed a strong, comprehensive defence system commanding vital water sources, agricultural fields, flocks, Jordan River crossings, the plains of Jericho and the caravan routes in the Judean desert. He turned the Qumran Ain Feshka oasis, like the one at En Gedi, into crown property and incorporated his tenants into his strategic plans." Norman Golb took up the notion that the Qumran settlement was established as a fortress and argued—against the prevailing views of the time—that not only was Qumran not established as a sectarian residence, but that there were no sectarians at the site at all. Like Rengstorf he proposed that the Scrolls had been produced in Jerusalem, but unlike Rengstorf, Golb argues that the scrolls came from different libraries throughout Jerusalem and were hidden in the caves by Jews fleeing the Romans during a political uprising.
Кумран как вилла
Роберт Донцель и Полин Донцель Вут сосредоточили свои исследования на мелких находках среди неопубликованных материалов де Во из Кумрана, включая, но не ограничиваясь, стеклянные изделия (55 недавно каталогизированных предметов), керамические изделия (53 новых предмета), металлические предметы и монеты. Вопреки распространенному мнению о том, что жители поселения были бедными монахами, Донцель и Донцель Вут предполагают, что это были состоятельные торговцы, имевшие связи с высшими слоями общества и богатыми жителями близлежащего Иерусалима. Они приходят к выводу, что Кумран представлял собой виллу рустика, или богатую усадьбу, которая могла служить зимней или круглогодичной резиденцией для какой-либо состоятельной семьи из Иерусалима. (На той же конференции, во время презентации Донцеля, Дж. Магнесс сообщила, что, судя по керамике в Музее Рокфеллера, "практически не было изысканных изделий". Эрик Мейерс добавил: "Я согласен; мои посещения также это подтверждают. Я вижу утвердительный кивок от профессора Донцель Вут". Рейчел Бар-Натан также отметила: "В Иерихоне также наблюдается заметная нехватка предметов роскоши, всего несколько расписных фрагментов во всем ассортименте").
Robert Donceel and Pauline Donceel Voûte focused their research on the small finds amongst de Vaux's unpublished materials from Qumran, including, but not limited to, glassware (55 newly catalogued items), stoneware (53 new items), metal wares, and coins. Contrary to the belief that the inhabitants of the site were poor monastics, Donceel and Donceel Voûte suggest that the residents were actually wealthy traders, with connections to the upper class and wealthy in nearby Jerusalem. They ultimately suggest that Qumran was a villa rustica, or wealthy manor house that may have been a winter or year round second home to some wealthy family from Jerusalem. (At the same conference as the Donceel's presentation, J. Magness reported that from what she saw of the pottery in the Rockefeller Museum that "there was very, very little in the way of fine wares". Eric Meyers, next, said "I concur; my visits also corroborate that. I see an affirmative nod from Professor Donceel Voute." Rachel Bar Nathan also notes, "[a]t Jericho, there is also a striking lack of luxury ware, with only a few painted shards in the whole repertoire.")
Кумран как торговый центр
Хотя модель виллы не получила существенной поддержки, свидетельства, с которыми она пыталась работать, привели к новым попыткам объяснения. Лена Кансдейл и Алан Краун впервые предположили, что поселение являлось укреплённой дорожной станцией и портовым городом на берегу Мертвого моря, то есть это место было важным торговым центром (или "антрепо") на крупном торговом пути с севера на юг. Ижар Хиршфельд признал, что Кумран изначально был крепостью Хасмонеев. Ссылаясь на свои работы в Эйн-Фешхе в качестве примера, он предположил, что в эпоху Ирода это место в Кумране в конечном итоге превратилось в укреплённую торговую станцию, основанную на сельском хозяйстве. Ицхак Маген и Юваль Пелег посвятили свои десятилетние раскопки в Кумране исследованию обширной водной системы. Они согласны с тем, что изначально это место было "передовым фортом", но утверждают, что оно было переоборудовано в производственный комплекс по изготовлению керамики, а водная система использовалась для подачи воды с глиной на территорию комплекса. Эта вода затем направлялась в бассейны, где глина оседала на дно. Полученный осадок, по мнению этих авторов, использовался для производства керамики. Таким образом, Ю. Маген и Ю. Пелег предположили, что Кумран был местом экспорта керамических изделий. Их раскопки выявили большое количество глины на дне бассейна 71, что послужило аргументом в их пользу.
While the villa model has gained little support, the evidence that it tried to deal with has led to further attempts at explanation. Lena Cansdale and Alan Crown argued for the first time that the settlement was a fortified road station and a port town on the shores of the Dead Sea, meaning that the site was actually a prominent commercial site (or "entrepot") on a major north–south trade route. Yizhar Hirschfeld accepted that Qumran was originally a Hasmonean fortress. Citing his work at ‘Ein Feshkha as a comparison, he suggested that the site at Qumran ultimately became an agriculturally based, fortified trading station during the Herodian era. Yizhak Magen and Yuval Peleg have focused their 10 year excavation at Qumran upon the vast water system at Qumran. They accept that the site was originally a "forward field fort", but argue that the site was repurposed as a pottery production plant, and that the water system was actually used to bring the clay laced water into the site. This water was then directed to the pools, where the clay could fall to the bottom. The resulting sediment was then used for the purpose of pottery production, according to these authors. Thus, Y. Magen and Y. Peleg proposed that Qumran was a pottery export site. Their excavations revealed a large amount of clay at the bottom of pool 71; so this was used as part of their argument.
Анализ глины для керамики
В настоящее время были проанализированы образцы глины, найденной в Кумране, а также состав различных керамических изделий. Эти исследования показывают, что большая часть кумранской керамики не была произведена на этом месте. По всей видимости, до двух третей кумранской керамики не изготавливались из кумранской глины. "Эта информация прямо противоречит" предложению Магена Пелега, – утверждают учёные Дж. Гунневег и М. Балла. J. Michniewicz, отвечая на предыдущие анализы Баллы и Гунневега, написал: "Выводы Баллы и Гунневега не подтверждаются ни информацией о том, какие элементы были взяты для статистической интерпретации и какие из них наиболее сильно повлияли на разделение, ни справочными данными или статистическими расчётами". В 2020 году Гунневег ответил на возражения Мишневича (а также Джозефа Йеллина). Признавая обоснованность некоторых замечаний критиков, он защитил общий тезис, предложенный им и Баллой в ряде публикаций. Начиная с 2000 года в исследованиях наблюдается широкое согласие в том, что значительная часть керамики, найденной в Кумране, была привезена оттуда из других мест. "Хотя нельзя исключать, что производители привозили глину извне, наличие множества источников глины (Иерусалим, Иерихон, Моца, Бейт-Уммар и другие неустановленные места) указывает на то, что многие сосуды не были изготовлены на месте". На основе анализа методом нейтронной активации Гунневег и Балла классифицировали глину, использованную для кумранской керамики, на три основные группы. ‘Группа I’ была идентифицирована как местная, кумранская. Она содержала большинство керамических изделий, которые, несомненно, были изготовлены на этом месте, таких как глиняные шарики и крышки для печей. ‘Группа II’ связана с районами вокруг Хеврона, который расположен недалеко от залежей глины Бейт-Уммар и Моца. А ‘Группа III’ локализована в отложениях, найденных вокруг Иерихона.
Samples of the clay found at Qumran have now been analysed, as well as the composition of various ceramic items. These studies indicate that much of Qumran pottery was not produced at the site. It appears that as much as two thirds of Qumran pottery was not made from Qumran clay. "This information goes straight against" the Magen Peleg proposal, according to scientists J. Gunneweg and M. Balla. J. Michniewicz responding to previous analyses of Balla and Gunneweg, wrote, "Balla and Gunneweg's conclusions are corroborated neither by information about which elements were taken for statistical interpretation and which determined the division particularly strongly nor by the reference data or statistical computation". In 2020, Gunneweg responded to the objections of Michniewicz (as well as those of Joseph Yellin). While admitting the validity of some of critics' objections, he defended the overall thesis as proposed by him and Balla in several publications. There appears to be a broad agreement in the research since 2000 that much of the pottery found in Qumran was brought there from other places. "While it is not impossible that manufacturers brought clay from outside, the existence of multiple sources of clay (Jerusalem, Jericho, Motza, Beit ‘Ummar, and other unidentified sites) implies that many of the vessels were not locally made." Based on Neutron Activation Analysis, Gunneweg and Balla classified the clay used for Qumran pottery in three broad groups. ‘Group I’ was identified as local to Qumran. It contained most of the ceramic items that were certainly made on the site, such as clay balls and oven covers. ‘Group II’ is connected to the areas around Hebron, which is close to the Beit ’Ummar and Motza clay deposits. And ‘Group III’ is localized to the deposits found around Jericho.
Кумран как часть долины Иордана
Рейчел Бар-Натан отвергает утверждение о том, что посуда, обнаруженная в Кумране, демонстрирует какие-либо особенности, свойственные определенной секте, и предполагает, что подобная керамика в различных количествах была найдена также в Масаде, Иерихоне и других поселениях региона. Дэвид Стейси утверждает, что поселение в Кумране связано с поместьем в Иерихоне. В связи с дефицитом воды в Кумране в течение всего года, он предполагает, что данная местность использовалась как сезонное производство кожи и керамики.
Rachel Bar Nathan rejects the claim that dishware found at Qumran shows any sectarian characteristic, and proposes that such pottery has also been found in varying quantities at Masada, Jericho and other sites in the region. David Stacey argues that the settlement at Qumran is associated with the estate at Jericho. Due to the scarcity of year round water at Qumran, he suggests that the site served as a seasonal tannery and pottery production facility.
Другие вопросы
Недавние научные данные, опубликованные Ирой Рабином, Оливером Ханом, Тимо Вольфом, Адмиром Масиком и Жизелой Вайнберг, демонстрируют, что чернила Свитка Благодарения содержат воду, взятую из Мертвого моря и его окрестностей, что указывает на связь между регионом Мертвого моря и, по крайней мере, некоторыми из свитков. Палеограф Ада Ярдени проанализировала и каталогизировала десятки рукописей из большинства пещер (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 и 11), которые она относит к одному писцу, которого она называет "кумранским писцом". Ярдени предостерегает от утверждений о том, что количество почерков писарей может достигать 500, и утверждает, что рукописи представляют собой срез современной литературы из многих отдаленных библиотек, собранной за короткий период времени. Гила Кахила Бар Гал установила, что часть пергамента, использованного для свитков Мертвого моря, была получена от нубийского горного козла, ареал которого не включал Иерусалим, но охватывал гору Гермон, Голанские высоты, Негевское нагорье и западный берег Мертвого моря.
Recent scientific evidence published by Ira Rabin, Oliver Hahn, Timo Wolff, Admir Masic, and Gisela Weinberg demonstrates that the ink from The Thanksgiving Scroll uses water taken from the Dead Sea and vicinity thereby demonstrating a link between the Dead Sea region and at least some of the scrolls. Paleographer Ada Yardeni analysed and listed dozens of manuscripts from most of the caves (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, and 11) that she assigns to a single scribe who she refers to as a "Qumran scribe". Yardeni cautions against claims of scribal hands being as many as 500 and claims that the manuscripts are a cross section of then current literature from many distant libraries, deposited in a short time. Gila Kahila Bar Gal determined that some of the skin used for the Dead Sea scrolls came from the Nubian ibex, whose range did not include Jerusalem, but includes Mount Hermon and the Golan Heights, the Negev highlands and the western shore of the Dead Sea.
Археологический памятник
1. Смотря на восток от ущелья Кумран, небольшое сооружение в верхней левой части среди деревьев содержит современный центр для посетителей Кумрана. Руины Кумрана видны сразу справа. Поселение было построено у подножия плато, обращенного к морю. Мертвое море образует размытый фон. Крайне справа – вади Кумран, пересыхающий ручей. Однако при редких дождях он превращается в бурный поток, размывающий склон плато, на котором расположен Кумран. От середины слева к поселению тянутся остатки акведука, который снабжал Кумран ценным запасом воды. В конце выступающей в центре картины находится пещера 4, предоставившая основную часть свитков Мертвого моря.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
2. Это еще один вид на вади Кумран, снятый с эспланады, примыкающей к южной стороне поселения Кумран. Пещера 4 хорошо видна. Это искусственная пещера, высеченная в скале. В ней было найдено несколько сотен свитков, обнаруженных и исследованных в XX веке местным бедуином, искавшим свитки. За пещерой, на скале, виден верхний участок вади Кумран, прорезающий себе путь к его дну.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
3. Поднявшись от центра для посетителей, можно увидеть угол башни. Слева мы видим в основном контрфорсы башни, отмечающие северо-западный угол главного здания. Впереди – современная дорожка, позволяющая посетителям осмотреть территорию и увидеть сложность системы водоснабжения. За дорожкой, справа, находится акведук, по которому дождевая вода поступала на территорию. Вдали, в центре, – ущелье Кумран.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
4. Эта фотография сделана с дорожки. Южный конец главного здания виден в верхнем левом углу. Главный канал извивается по поселению – здесь он огибает круглую цистерну, прежде чем повернуть на юго-восток. Эта цистерна была построена в железном веке, что делает ее одним из старейших сооружений в Кумране. Обратите внимание на арку, высеченную в камне в центре слева: она подавала воду в ступенчатую цистерну (L117), расположенную за ней. На заднем плане – навес, с которого была сделана фотография №2.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
5. С башни на запад открывается вид на рабочее сооружение, которое, возможно, было основанием печи (или другого сооружения, отапливаемого снизу). Слева от него плоская площадка отмечает вход в ступенчатую цистерну (L117), расположенную дальше слева (ступеньки едва различимы, так как они спускаются влево). Главный водопровод находится перед дорожкой. За дорожкой – руины западного здания. Дальше – акведук, по которому дождевая вода поступала в поселение.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
6. Смотря с башни на юг, можно увидеть длинную узкую комнату, примыкающую внутренней стеной к западному крылу главного здания. Здесь де Во обнаружил два чернильных колодца и оштукатуренные элементы, которые он интерпретировал как скамьи или столы для письма. Самая большая поверхность, после реконструкции, имела размеры 5 метров в длину, 40 сантиметров в ширину и всего 50 сантиметров в высоту. Эти скамьи (или столы) обрушились сквозь пол, когда обрушился потолок. Де Во назвал эту комнату «скрипторием» и предположил, что здесь могли быть написаны свитки Мертвого моря, хотя не все ученые согласны с этой интерпретацией. Однако большинство ученых сходятся во мнении, что на верхнем этаже Локуса 30 велась какая-то письменная деятельность. На территории и вокруг нее было найдено несколько остраконов, в том числе учебный алфавит.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
7. Смотря на восток, к Мертвому морю: этот ступенчатый бассейн расположен непосредственно к югу от главного здания, но в пределах главной южной стены. Первоначально это был один длинный бассейн, который затем был разделен внутренней стеной на две части, сделав западную половину (L56) похожей на большинство других ступенчатых бассейнов на этом месте. Восточная сторона (L58) была раскопана, и была создана гораздо более глубокая цистерна для хранения. Исходный бассейн в полной мере использовал уклон местности, требуя лишь минимальных земляных работ для обеспечения необходимой вместимости. Этот бассейн появился спустя некоторое время после того, как была модернизирована система водоснабжения Кумрана, что позволило транспортировать воду дальше и увеличить емкость хранилищ на территории. Южный конец главного здания виден слева. Между ним и стеной бассейна находится канал, по которому вода поступала в более отдаленные бассейны L48/49 и L71.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
8. Смотря на юго-восток, можно увидеть длинную узкую комнату, примыкающую к главной южной стене поселения слева (это место находится к югу от №7). Дальний конец комнаты когда-то был украшен колоннами, что навело де Во на мысль о наличии второго этажа, хотя следов его не было обнаружено. Де Во считал эту комнату трапезной, поскольку в смежной комнате, обычно называемой кладовой, было найдено более тысячи керамических предметов. Де Во полагал, что эта посуда использовалась для общих трапез, хотя некоторые оспаривают эту интерпретацию. Фактически, размер и планировка указывают на то, что это была площадка для сушки глины из соседних испарительных цистерн. Соответствие летнему солнцестоянию подтверждает эту теорию.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
9. Справа (к югу) от №8. Это место обычно называют «кладовой». На южном конце этой комнаты было найдено 708 мисок, 204 тарелок, 75 кубков, 37 горшков, 21 кувшин, 11 графинов и другие керамические изделия, в основном аккуратно сложенные. Де Во полагал, что эту посуду использовали для трапез в L.77, который он называл «трапезной». Южный конец комнаты был обнесен стеной. Обрушение этой стены на керамику, разбив ее, и необходимость укрепления южных стен снаружи могут указывать на землетрясение. В последний период существования Кумрана водопровод был перенаправлен, чтобы проходить непосредственно к югу от северной стены, а затем, следуя внешней стене L.77, он снабжал большую цистерну (L.71). Еще одной интересной находкой с этого места была миска с надписью «Елеазар». Обратите внимание на остатки двух пилястр, назначение которых неизвестно, но они, по-видимому, не несли нагрузку.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
10. Одним из самых интересных открытий в Кумране стало обнаружение на восточной стороне главного здания этой ступенчатой цистерны с трещиной на ступенях, отмечающей место обрушения земли, предположительно из-за землетрясения. Канал, расположенный южнее, питал самую большую цистерну Кумрана, которая также была разрушена в то же время и тем же способом. Поскольку эта цистерна использовалась на позднем этапе существования поселения, можно предположить, что и эта цистерна была повреждена тогда же. Также представляют интерес перегородки, проходящие вдоль ступеней. Некоторые ученые предположили, что они служили разделителями между входящими и выходящими из бассейна, подобно миквам (еврейским ритуальным баням), найденным недалеко от Иерусалима, но не все ученые принимают эту интерпретацию. (Катарина Галор, проведшая наиболее полное исследование системы водоснабжения Кумрана на сегодняшний день, прокомментировала: «[с] практической точки зрения, интерпретация использования низких перегородок в качестве символического разделителя пространства не имеет смысла».) Перегородки могли служить для направления воды в бассейн.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
11. Смотря на юг, можно увидеть длинный узкий бассейн, вырытый в юго-восточном углу поселения. Это последний и самый большой бассейн в системе водоснабжения Кумрана. Эта огромная конструкция могла вместить 300 кубических метров воды, что больше, чем во всех остальных ступенчатых бассейнах вместе взятых. В период III (т. е. после Иудейской войны) водопровод был частично перенаправлен, чтобы устранить предыдущие разрушения и продолжить наполнение этого бассейна. Ученые спорят о том, был ли это миква (еврейская ритуальная баня), цистерна или емкость для сбора глины.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
Критика
Некоторые авторы утверждают, что Израиль вложил значительные средства в этот район, чтобы представить Кумранские пещеры как объект "уникального израильского еврейского наследия".
Some writers have claimed that Israel has invested heavily in the area to establish the Qumran caves as a site of "uniquely Israeli Jewish heritage".
Научные статьи о Кумранском месте
Крепость в Кумране: история интерпретаций Роберт Каргилл (2009). Три заметки о Кумране Дэвид Стейси (2009). Загадка Кумрана Ярон Бен Ами (2004). Анализ работ Магена и Пелега. Некоторые замечания об археологическом контексте Кумрана в свете последних публикаций Дэвида Стейси (2001). Пространственный подход к руинам Хирбет Кумран у Мертвого моря) Лённквист, К. & Лённквист, М. (2004) Институт культурных исследований, кафедра археологии, Хельсинкский университет, Финляндия.
The Fortress at Qumran: A History of Interpretation Robert Cargill (2009). Three Notes on Qumran David Stacey (2009). The Enigma of Qumran Yaron Ben Ami (2004). An analysis of the work of Magen and Peleg. Some Notes on the Archaeological Context of Qumran in the light of recent publications David Stacey (2001). Spatial Approach to the Ruins of Khirbet Qumran at the Dead Sea) Lönnqvist, K. & Lönnqvist, M. (2004) Institute for Cultural Research, Dept of Archaeology, University of Helsinki, Finland.