Құмран – Батыс Жағалаудағы археологиялық орын. Есенилер мекендеген ежелгі қала, Өлі теңіз маңында орналасқан. Тарих, археология және туризмге қызығушылар үшін.
Ағылшыншамен салыстырыңыз: абзацты басыңыз — түпнұсқа терезеде ашылады. Абзац астындағы EN түймесі оны мәтін ішінде көрсетеді.
Мазмұны
Кіріспе
Құмран археологиялық орны (; خربة قمران Khirbet Qumran) – Израильдің Құмран ұлттық паркі басқаратын Батыс Жағалаудағы археологиялық орын. Ол Өлі теңізінің солтүстік-батыс жағалауынан шамамен алыс, ежелгі Иерихон қаласының оңтүстігінде және қазіргі Израильдің Калья елді мекені мен кибуцының жанында орналасқан құрғақ марльді үстіртте жатыр. Ежелгі грек кезеңінің қонысы Хасмонейлердің басшысы Иоанн Гирканның тұсында немесе одан кейін салынған. Құмранды екінші храм дәуірінің соңындағы яһуди сектасы мекендеген, көптеген ғалымдар оларды ессейлер деп санайды; алайда, басқа да яһуди топтары болған деген болжамдар бар. Ол бірінші еврей-рим соғысына дейін, шамамен 73 жылға дейін римдіктермен қиратылғанға дейін қоныстандырылған. Кейіннен Бар-Кохба көтерілісі кезінде яһуди көтерілісшілері оны пайдаланған. Бүгінде Құмран қаласы Өлі теңіздің құпиялары жасырылған Құмран үңгірлеріне ең жақын орналасқан елді мекен ретінде белгілі – бұл үңгірлер тік шөлді жартастарда және марльді үстірт астында жатыр. Құмрандағы негізгі қазба жұмыстарын 1950 жылдары Роланд де Во жүргізді, содан кейін бірнеше қазбалар салынды. 1967 жылғы алты күндік соғыстан бері Құмранды Израильдің табиғатты және саябақтарды қорғау басқармасы басқарады.
Archaeological site in the West Bank
Qumran (; خربة قمران Khirbet Qumran) is an archaeological site in the West Bank managed by Israel's Qumran National Park. It is located on a dry marl plateau about from the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea, about south of the historic city of Jericho, and adjacent to the modern Israeli settlement and kibbutz of Kalya. The Hellenistic period settlement was constructed during the reign of Hasmonean leader John Hyrcanus or somewhat later. Qumran was inhabited by a Jewish sect of the late Second Temple period, which most scholars identify with the Essenes; however, other Jewish groups were also suggested. It was occupied most of the time until and was destroyed by the Romans during the First Jewish–Roman War, possibly as late as 73 CE. It was later used by Jewish rebels during the Bar Kokhba revolt. Today, the Qumran site is best known as the settlement nearest to the Qumran Caves where the Dead Sea Scrolls were hidden, caves in the sheer desert cliffs and beneath, in the marl terrace. The principal excavations at Qumran were conducted by Roland de Vaux in the 1950s, and several later digs have been carried out. Since the 1967 Six Day War, Qumran has been managed by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority.
Тарих
1947–1956 жылдары Өлі теңіздің құпиялары табылғаннан бері Құмранда ауқымды қазба жұмыстары жүргізілуде. Шамамен 900 құпия жазба табылды. Көбінесе олар парқментке, ал кейбіреулері папирусқа жазылған. Су жинағыштар, еврейлердің ритуалдық мою орындары және зираттар, сондай-ақ тамақ ішетін немесе жиналатын бөлме және жоғары қабаттың қирандылары табылған, оның кейбіреулері жазу шеберханасы болған деген болжам бар. Сондай-ақ, қыш ыдыстарды пісіретін пештер мен мұнара да бар. Көптеген ғалымдар бұл жерде еврей сектасы, әсіресе ессейлер тұрған деп санайды. Алайда, Лоуренс Шиффманның пікірінше, қауымның ережелері, дін қызметкерлеріне және садокиттер мұрасына артық көңіл бөлгені, сондай-ақ басқа да мәліметтер садукейлік бағыттағы сектаның, ессейлердің әртүрлі топтарынан немесе олардың бірінен ерекшеленетінін көрсетеді. Басқалар секталық емес түсіндірулер ұсынады, олардың кейбіреулері бұл орынның бастапқыда Хасмонейлердің бекінісі болғанын, кейін бай отбасының вилласына немесе өндіріс орталығына, мысалы, қыш құмыралар фабрикасына немесе осыған ұқсас бірдеңеге айналғанын айтады.
Since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947–1956, extensive excavations have taken place in Qumran. Nearly 900 scrolls were discovered. Most were written on parchment and some on papyrus. Cisterns, Jewish ritual baths, and cemeteries have been found, along with a dining or assembly room and debris from an upper story alleged by some to have been a scriptorium as well as pottery kilns and a tower. Many scholars believe the location was home to a Jewish sect, probably the Essenes. But, according to Lawrence Schiffman, the rules of the community, its heavy stress on priesthood and the Zadokite legacy, and other details indicate a Sadducean oriented sect either distinct from or one of the various Essene groupings. Others propose non sectarian interpretations, some of these starting with the notion that it was a Hasmonean fort that was later transformed into a villa for a wealthy family, or a production center, perhaps a pottery factory or something similar.
Құмран зираты
Бұл жердің шығысында үлкен зират табылды. Бұл негізгі зираттан басқа, оның үш жеке кеңейтімі, сондай-ақ басты зираттан шамамен 10 минут қашықтықта орналасқан солтүстік зираты және Уади Кумранның оңтүстігіндегі зират бар. Көптеген қабірлерде еркектердің қалдықтары табылса, кейбір әйелдердің де қалдықтары анықталды, бірақ кейбір жерлеулер орта ғасырлық дәуірге жатуы мүмкін. Яһуди заңына сәйкес зираттарды қазуға тыйым салынғандықтан, қабірлердің аз ғана бөлігі қазылды. Құмран зиратында мыңнан астам адам жерленген. Бір теория бойынша, бұл мәйіттер ұрпақтан-ұрпаққа жеткен секта мүшелеріне тиесілі, ал екінші теория бойынша, олар Құмранға оңай жерлеу үшін әкелінген, себебі айналасындағы тасты аймақтарда жерлеу қиын болған. Кітаптар елді мекеннің маңындағы он бір үңгірде табылды, олардың кейбіреулеріне тек елді мекен арқылы ғана қол жеткізуге болады. Кейбір ғалымдар бұл үңгірлердің сектаның тұрақты кітапханалары болғанын, себебі сөрелер жүйесінің қалдықтары сақталғандығын айтады. Басқа ғалымдар кейбір үңгірлер аймақта тұратын адамдар үшін тұрғын үй ретінде де пайдаланылғанын жоққа шығармайды. Үңгірлерде табылған көптеген мәтіндер қабылданған яһуди сенімдері мен дәстүрлерін көрсетеді, ал басқалары ерекше, бірегей немесе азшылық пікірлері мен дәстүрлерін сипаттайды. Кейбір ғалымдар бұл мәтіндердің кейбіреулері Құмран тұрғындарының сенімдерін бейнелейтінін, олар ессейлер болған немесе хасмоней дінбасыларына/патшаларына қарсы садокиттердің дәстүрлі діни отбасының қолдаушыларының панасы болғанын санайды. 1990 жылдары жарияланған әдеби хат қауымдастық құру себептерін түсіндіреді, олардың кейбіреулері Талмудтағы саддукейлердің аргументтерімен ұқсас. Көптеген кітаптар бірінші яһуди-рим соғысы (66-73 жж.) кезінде үңгірлерде жасырылған деп есептеледі, бірақ олардың кейбіреулері одан бұрын сақталған болуы мүмкін.
A large cemetery was discovered to the east of the site. Besides this primary cemetery, there are also three separate extensions of it, as well as the north cemetery (about 10 minutes away from the primary) and a cemetery south of Wadi Qumran. While most of the graves contain the remains of males, some females were also discovered, though some burials may be from medieval times. Only a small portion of the graves were excavated, as excavating cemeteries is forbidden under Jewish law. Over a thousand bodies are buried at Qumran cemetery. One theory is that bodies were those of generations of sectarians, while another is that they were brought to Qumran because burial was easier there than in rockier surrounding areas. The scrolls were found in a series of eleven caves around the settlement, some accessible only through the settlement. Some scholars have claimed that the caves were the permanent libraries of the sect, due to the presence of the remains of a shelving system. Other scholars believe that some caves also served as domestic shelters for those living in the area. Many of the texts found in the caves appear to represent widely accepted Jewish beliefs and practices, while other texts appear to speak of divergent, unique, or minority interpretations and practices. Some scholars believe that some of these texts describe the beliefs of the inhabitants of Qumran, who may have been Essenes, or the asylum for supporters of the traditional priestly family of the Zadokites against the Hasmonean priest/kings. A literary epistle published in the 1990s expresses reasons for creating a community, some of which resemble Sadducean arguments in the Talmud. Most of the scrolls seem to have been hidden in the caves during the turmoil of the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), although some of them may have been deposited earlier.
Алдын ала талдау
Хирбет-Кумран орны 19-шы ғасырдан бері еуропалық зерттеушілерге белгілі болған. Алғашқы зерттеушілердің назары 1851 жылы де Сольси бастаған зиратқа аударды. Шындығында, Құмрандағы алғашқы қазба жұмыстары (қазіргі заманауи әдістеме дамымас бұрын) 1855 жылы Генри Пул, ал 1873 жылы Чарльз Клермонт Ганно жүргізген зираттағы жерлеулер болды. 1856 жылдың желтоқсан айында Альберт Айзекс, британдық консул Джеймс Финн және фотограф Джеймс Грэм Құмранға сапар жасады. Айзекс Құмран мұнарасы туралы: «Бұл мұнараның немесе бекіністің бір түрі болғанына күмән келтіруге болмайды. Оның орналасқан жері стратегиялық, қорғаныс операцияларына өте қолайлы» деді. Финн кейіннен Құмранды «цистернасы бар ежелгі бекініс» деп атады. Британдық ғалым Эрнест Уильям Гурни Мастерман 1900-1901 жылдары бірнеше рет Құмранға барды. Құмранның ‘Эйн-Фешха’ бұлақтарына көрінетін жазық үстінде орналасқандығын байқағаннан кейін, ол қираған орынның «бұрынғыда шағын бекініс болған болуы мүмкін» деген қорытындыға келді. Мастерман сондай-ақ, кішкентай бекініске мыңнан астам қабірден тұратын зираттың қажеттілігіне күмән келтірді. Густав Далман 1914 жылы Құмранға сапар шегіп, оны бург немесе форт деп анықтады. Археолог Майкл Ави Йона Далманның Құмранды бекініс деп атауымен келісіп, Құмрандағы қалдықтарды Яһуданың оңтүстік-шығыс шекарасындағы бекіністер тізбегінің бір бөлігі ретінде көрсеткен картасын жариялады.
The site of Khirbet Qumran had been known to European explorers since the 19th century. The initial attention of the early explorers was focused on the cemetery, beginning with de Saulcy in 1851. In fact, the first excavations at Qumran (prior to the development of modern methodology) were of burials in the cemetery, conducted by Henry Poole in 1855 followed by Charles Clermont Ganneau in 1873. Albert Isaacs, British counsel James Finn, and photographer James Graham visited Qumran in December 1856. Isaacs stated regarding Qumran's tower, "It can hardly be doubted that this formed a tower or stronghold of some kind. The situation is commanding, and well adapted for defensive operations." Finn later suggested Qumran was "some ancient fort with a cistern". The British scholar Ernest William Gurney Masterman visited Qumran on several occasions between 1900 and 1901. After observing the positioning of Qumran atop a plateau overlooking the ‘Ein Feshkha Springs, he concluded the ruins "may have very well been once a small fortress". Masterman also questioned why a small fort would require a graveyard of over one thousand tombs. Gustaf Dalman visited Qumran in 1914, and explicitly identified Qumran as a burg, or fort. Archaeologist Michael Avi Yonah agreed with Dalman's identification of Qumran as a fort and published a map that identified the remains at Qumran as part of a string of fortresses along the southeastern Judean border.
Де Воның түсіндірмелері
Де Во Кумрандағы өз табылғандарын (кем дегенде ішінара) Өлі теңіздің орамдарындағы ақпаратқа негіздеп түсіндірді, ол қазбалар барысында жақын маңдағы үңгірлерде табылған. Де Во Кумрандағы қалдықтарды діни топтар қалдырған деген тұжырымға келді. Ол қазба жұмыстарын және Өлі теңіздегі шиыршықтарды, сондай-ақ Плиний Зур, Филон және Флавий Иосиф жазған тарихи деректерді қолдана отырып, сол жердің тұрғындары ессейлер деп аталатын, ырым-жырымдарын қатты ұстанатын яһудилер сектасы болған деген тұжырымға келді. Бұл гипотеза елді мекеннің алғашқы тұрғындары ессендер болғанын және олар шөлдегі жерді діни мақсаттар үшін құрғандығын көрсетеді. Ол 30-шы локустың үстіндегі бөлмені "скрипторий" деп түсіндірді, өйткені ол жерде сия құймаларын тапты. Сонымен қатар, жоғарғы қабаттың қалдықтарында сылатылған орындық табылды. Де Во осы аймақта ессейлер Өлі теңіздің кейбір шиыршықтарын жазған болуы мүмкін деген тұжырымға келді. Де Во сонымен қатар 77-ші орынды 89-шы орынның жақын маңдағы "қалтаханасында" табақтар жиынтығының көптеп табылғанына сүйене отырып, "реффектория" немесе қоғамдық асхана ретінде түсіндірді. Сонымен қатар, де Во көптеген баспалдақты цистерналарды "микваот" немесе яһудилік ырымдық моншалар деп түсіндірді, өйткені олар Иерусалим ғибадатханасы маңындағы бірнеше баспалдақты және бөліктелген ырымдық моншаларға ұқсас. Де Во бұл шиыршықтар туралы: "Құмранның скрипторийінде қолжазбалар көшірілді. Бірақ бұдан артық ештеңе істей алмаймыз" деді. Оның ойынша, ессейлер өздерінің қауіпсіздігіне қауіп төнді деп санағанда, кейіннен кітаптар шиыршықтарын жақын маңдағы үңгірлерге жасырып қойды. Роланд де Во 1971 жылы Құмрандағы қазба жұмыстары туралы толық баяндама жасамай қайтыс болды. 1986 жылы Библия мектебі бельгиялық археолог Роберт Донселді де Вокс қазбаларының соңғы нәтижелерін жариялау міндетіне тағайындады. Алдын ала қорытындылар 1992 жылы Нью-Йоркте өткен конференцияда айтылды, бірақ түпкілікті есеп ешқашан жасалмады. Паулин Донцель Воутеге сәйкес, соңғы есепті жазу мүмкін емес еді, өйткені көптеген артефакттар жоғалып кеткен немесе бүлінген (әсіресе, Донцельдерге сәйкес, Ролланд де Вокстың Құмраннан қазған кейбір монеталары жоғалған). Бұл олқылықты жою үшін, 1994 жылы Экольде де Вокстің далалық жазбаларының синтезі жарияланды. Бұл томға бірнеше жүз фотосурет, 48 беттік өлшеу және далалық күнделіктердің қысқаша сипаттамалары кірді. 2003 жылы "Еңбектер туралы түсініктемелердің" ағылшын тіліндегі аудармасы жарық көрді. Кейінгі екі кітапты 2003 және 2016 жылдары Жан Батист Хамберт баспадан шығарды. Де-Вокстың Құмраннан тапқан археологиялық табылғандарының бәрі (Рокфеллер мұражайында сақталған) әлі жарияланбаған; кейбіреулері ғалымдар мен көпшілікке әлі де қолжетімді емес.
De Vaux interpreted his findings at Qumran based (at least in part) upon information in the Dead Sea Scrolls—which continued to be discovered in the nearby caves throughout his excavations. De Vaux concluded that the remains at Qumran were left by a sectarian religious community. Using his excavations as well as textual sources, including the Dead Sea Scrolls and the historical accounts recorded by Pliny the Elder, Philo, and Flavius Josephus, De Vaux's conclusion was that the inhabitants of the site were a sect of highly ritualistic Jews called the Essenes, a conclusion that has come to be known as the "Qumran–Essene hypothesis". This hypothesis suggests that the original residents of the settlement were the Essenes, and that they established the site in the desert for religious purposes. He interpreted the room above locus 30 as a "scriptorium" because he discovered inkwells there. A plastered bench was also discovered in the remains of an upper story. De Vaux concluded that this was the area where the Essenes could have written some of the Dead Sea Scrolls. De Vaux also interpreted locus 77 as a "refectory", or a community dining hall, based on the discovery of numerous sets of bowls in the nearby "pantry" of locus 89. Additionally, de Vaux interpreted many of the numerous stepped cisterns as "miqva’ot", or Jewish ritual baths, due to their similarity to several stepped and partitioned ritual baths near the Jerusalem Temple Mount. Regarding the scrolls De Vaux cautiously stated that "manuscripts were copied in the scriptorium of Qumran We may also suppose that certain works were composed at Khirbet Qumran. But beyond this we cannot go." He believed that the Essenes later hid the scrolls in the nearby caves when they felt their safety was in danger. Roland de Vaux died in 1971 without having provided a full report on the excavations at Qumran. In 1986 the École Biblique appointed the Belgian archaeologist Robert Donceel to the task of publishing the final results of de Vaux's excavations. Preliminary findings were presented at a conference in New York in 1992, but a final report never eventuated. According to Pauline Donceel Voûte the final report was impossible to write, because many artifacts had been lost or corrupted (in particular, according to the Donceels, some of the coins excavated by Roland de Vaux from Qumran had been lost.) To fill the gap, the École had a synthesis of de Vaux's field notes published in 1994. This volume included several hundred photographs, 48 pages of measurement, and summary descriptions of the field diaries. An English translation of the field notes synthesis was published in 2003. Two later books, devoted to the interpretation of the excavations of de Vaux, were published by Jean Baptiste Humbert in 2003 and 2016. However, not all of de Vaux's archaeological findings from Qumran (which are stored in the Rockefeller Museum) have yet been published; some are still inaccessible to scholars and the public.
Қосымша қазбалар мен зерттеулер
Де Воның Құмранды қазу жұмыстары өте толық болғандықтан, ол елді мекен туралы ақпараттың ең маңызды көзі болды. Бірақ Де Во жұмысын аяқтағаннан бері бірнеше қазба жұмыстары жүргізілді. Де Во қазбадан тыс қалған жердің аз бөлігі болғандықтан, кейінгі археологтар зерттеуді жалғастыру үшін басқа жерлерге, соның ішінде Де Воның қазбаларынан шыққан қоқыс орындарына жиі жүгінді. Кэтрин Мерфидің сөзіне сәйкес, 1960 жылдары Джон Аллегро мен Соломон Стекколл Құмранда жарияланбаған қазба жұмыстарын жүргізді. Стекколл сонымен қатар зиратта он екі қабірді қазып зерттеді. 1967 жылы Иорданияның Ескіліктер департаментінің қызметкері Р. В. Даджани Құмранда қалпына келтіру жұмыстарын жүргізді. 1984 және 1985 жылдары Джозеф Патрич пен Игаэль Ядин Құмран төңірегіндегі үңгірлер мен жолдарды жүйелі түрде зерттеді. 1985 және 1991 жылдар аралығында Патрич бес үңгірді қазып, олардың ішінде 3Q және 11Q үңгірлерін зерттеді. Патричтің бір қорытындысы – үңгірлер «Өлі теңіз сектасының мүшелері үшін тұруға жарамды орын емес, оның орнына қойма және жасыру орындары ретінде пайдаланылған». 1993 жылдың қараша айының ортасынан 1994 жылдың қаңтарына дейін Израильдің Ескіліктер басқармасы Әмір Дрори мен Ицхак Магеннің басшылығымен «Scroll операциясы» аясында Құмран кешенінде және жақын жердегі құрылыстарда жұмыстар жүргізді. 1995–1996 жылдардың қысында және кейінгі маусымдарда Маген Броши мен Ханан Эшель Құмранның солтүстігіндегі үңгірлерде қосымша қазба жұмыстарын жүргізді; олар сондай-ақ зират пен мергель террасаларындағы үңгірлерде қазба жұмыстарын жасады. 1996 жылдан 1999 жылға дейін, содан кейін Ицхак Маген мен Юваль Пелег Ұлттық парктері басқармасының қолдауымен Құмранда қазба жұмыстарын жүргізді. Рэндалл Прайс пен Орен Гатфельд Құмран үстіртінде 2002, 2004 және 2005 жылдарғы маусымдарда қазып зерттеді (және 2010 жылғы маусымды жоспарлап отыр). Жаңа жаңалықтар табылды.
Although de Vaux's excavations of Qumran were quite exhaustive, and thereby the most important source of information on the settlement, there have been several excavations since de Vaux finished his work. As de Vaux left little of the settlement unexcavated, later archaeologists have often turned elsewhere to continue research, including dump sites from de Vaux's excavations. During the 1960s, according to Catherine Murphy, there were some unpublished excavations at Qumran by John Allegro and by Solomon Steckoll. Steckoll also carried out work in the cemetery, excavating twelve tombs. In 1967 restoration work was performed at Qumran by R. W. Dajjani of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan. In 1984 and 1985 Joseph Patrich and Yigael Yadin carried out a systematic survey of the caves and pathways around Qumran. Between 1985 and 1991 Patrich excavated five caves, including Caves 3Q and 11Q. One of Patrich's conclusions was that the caves "did not serve as habitations for the members of the Dead Sea Sect, but rather as stores and hiding places". From mid November 1993 to January 1994 the Israel Antiquities Authority carried out works in the Qumran compound and nearby installations as part of "Operation Scroll" under the direction of Amir Drori and Yitzhak Magen. In the winter of 1995–1996 and later seasons Magen Broshi and Hanan Eshel carried out further excavations in the caves north of Qumran; they also dug in the cemetery and in marl terrace caves. From 1996 to 1999 and later Yitzhak Magen and Yuval Peleg carried out excavations at Qumran under the auspices of the National Parks Authority. Randall Price and Oren Gutfeld dug on the Qumran plateau, seasons in 2002, 2004 and 2005 (and plan a 2010 season). Some new discoveries have been made.
Соңғы археологиялық талдау
Де Во қазбаларынан табылған көптеген шағын жәдігерлер Кумранға қатысты келешек қазба есептерінде пайдалану үшін Иерусалимге әкелінді. Бірақ Роланд де Воның қазасы есептерді тоқтатты, ал шағын жәдігерлер мұражайдың қоймаларындағы сөрелерде тозаң жинауға тасталды. 1980-жылдардың соңында археолог Роберт Донсел де Во материалдарымен жұмыс істеді, қазба есептерін жариялауға жаңа тырысқан. Ол діни қоныс моделіне сәйкес келмейтін артефакттарды тапты, оның ішінде "жетілдірілген шыны және тас ыдыстарды". 1992 жылы Паулин Донсель Вут осы артефакттарды түсіндіру үшін римдік вилла моделін ұсынды. 2002 жылы археологтар Мина мен Кеннет Лённквист Кумрандағы археологиялық және кеңістіктік зерттеулерін жариялады, бұл Кумрандағы кейбір құрылымдардың астрономиялық бағыттарын қоса алғанда, қоныс туралы түсіндірулерге жаңа көзқарас әкелді. Жақында Жан Баптист Юмбер француз қазбаларының соңғы басылымын жариялады, онда безендірілген фриз, opus sectile, әдемі бағаналар және т.б. дәлелдер келтірілді, бұл Кумранда "үлкен үй" – байлықтың бір кезеңін көрсетеді.
Most of the small finds from the de Vaux excavations were taken back to Jerusalem to be used in later excavation reports for Qumran, but the death of Roland de Vaux brought a halt to the reports and the small finds were left to gather dust on shelves in museum backrooms. In the late 1980s, archaeologist Robert Donceel worked on the de Vaux materials in a new effort towards publishing excavation reports. He found artifacts he believed did not fit the religious settlement model, including "sophisticated glass and stoneware". In 1992 Pauline Donceel Voute put forward the Roman villa model in an attempt to explain these artifacts. In 2002 archaeologists Minna and Kenneth Lönnqvist published their archaeological and spatial studies at Qumran bringing another view to the settlement interpretations including the astronomical orientations of some structures at Qumran. A recent final publication of the French excavations by Jean Baptist Humbert outlining evidence of a decorated frieze, opus sectile, fine columns etc., indicates a phase of a wealthier occupation, "une grande maison", at Qumran.
Керамика
Құмранда табылған қыш ыдыстар, шыны және монеталардың көп саны Донцельдердің пікірінше, секталық қонысқа сай келмейді. Бұл материалдар аймақтағы сауда байланыстарын көрсетеді және Құмранның грек-рим дәуірінде оқшауланбағанын дәлелдейді. Рейчел Бар Натан Құмраннан табылған қыш бұйымдары мен Иерихонның Хасмоней және Ирод сарайлары арасындағы ұқсастықтарға сүйене отырып, Құмранды оқшауланған нысан ретінде емес, Иордан аңғарының бір бөлігі ретінде қарастыру қажет деп сараптап айтты. Құмраннан табылған цилиндр тәрізді "папирус құмыралары" бір кезде бірегей деп есептелген, бірақ ол Иерихонда осыған ұқсас нәрсе табылуын, Масадада осыған ұқсас форманың болғанын және мұндай құмыралар Каландияда да табылғанын келтіреді. Бар Натан Иерихон сарайының мәліметтеріне сүйене отырып, "осы құмыралар тобының типологиялық дамуын", яғни цилиндрлі құмыраларды із басуға болады дейді. Ян Гунневег Иерихондағы жалғыз жартылай сәйкестік деп есептелетін – "жартылай сақталған жиегі мен мойны, тік иілген тұтқасы бар" – шын мәнінде "папирус" құмыра емес екенін атап өтті. Тағы бір құмыра Иорданияда Абила маңындағы кейінгі жерлеу орнынан табылған, бірақ фотосуреттері немесе суреттері жарияланбаған және құмыра қайта табылмай, де Вокс параллельдер іздегенін көрсетеді. Қыш ыдыстардың түрлерін ескерсек, нағыз цилиндрлі "папирус" құмыралары Құмраннан тыс жерде сирек кездеседі. Дегенмен, олар Құмранға ғана тән емес. Бар Натан осы құмыраның "Екінші ғибадатхана кезеңінде сирек кездесетінін" көрсетті. Масададағы ұсынылған параллель құмыралар туралы Бар Натан: "Осы сақтау құмыралары тобы Құмран аймағынан (немесе тоналған ба?) әкелінген, сондай-ақ Иерихон жазығынан да келген болуы мүмкін" деп жазды. Израиль археологтары Маген мен Пелегтің мәліметінше, цистерналардан табылған саз қыш фабрикасының құрылысына пайдаланылған. Құмран су құбырының құрылысы, цистерналар мен моншаларды сумен жабдықтайтын, маңызды хронологиялық белгі ретінде қарастырылуы мүмкін. Бұл мәселеде кейбір келіспеушіліктер болғанымен, Стейси (2004) оны шамамен б.з.д. 95-90 жылдарға, яғни де Вокс кезеңінің Ib периодына жатқызуды ұсынады.
The range of pottery, glass and high quantity of coins found at Qumran do not sit well in the context of a sectarian settlement according to the Donceels. These materials point to trade connections in the area, and provide evidence that Qumran may not have been in a vacuum in the Graeco Roman period. Rachel Bar Nathan has argued from similarities between pottery finds at Qumran and at the Hasmonean and Herodian palaces of Jericho that Qumran should be seen as part of the Jordan valley context, rather than as an isolated site. While the cylindrical "scroll jars" from Qumran were once thought unique, she cites a proposed similar find at Jericho, shows a related form existed at Masada, and reports that such jars have been found at Qalandiya. Bar Nathan states from the Jericho palace data that, "It is possible to trace the typological development of this group of jars", i. e., the cylindrical jars. Jan Gunneweg observed that the supposed single partial parallel at Jericho – "a partly preserved rim and neck with a vertical loop handle" – is in fact not a "scroll" jar. Another one was reported found in Jordan in a later burial near Abila but no photos or drawings were published and the jar has not been relocated, showing de Vaux sought parallels. Taking into account subtypes of pottery, true cylindrical "scroll" jars are not common outside Qumran. They are, however, clearly not unique to Qumran. Bar Nathan noted the jar's "rarity in the Second Temple period". Of some of the proposed parallel Masada jars, Bar Nathan wrote "It seems that this group of storage jars was brought (or pillaged?) from the area of Qumran and probably also from the Plain of Jericho." According to the Israeli archaeologists Magen and Peleg, the clay found in the cisterns was used for pottery factory facilities. The construction of the Qumran aqueduct that fed the cisterns and the baths can be seen as an important chronological marker. Although there are some disagreements in this area, Stacey (2004) argues that it should be dated to around 95 90 BCE, which is during de Vaux’s Period Ib.
Нумизматикалық зерттеулер
Құмраннан табылған монеталар – ежелгі орталықтың ең маңызды бастапқы дәлелдерінің бірі. Құмранның мерзімдемесі, қоныстану кезеңдері және тарихы туралы жазылған көптеген мәліметтер түпнұсқа қазба жұмыстарын жүргізген Роланд де Воның 1961 жылғы алдын ала есебі мен лекциясына негізделген, ол 1973 жылы қазақ тіліне аударылған. Құмран қола монеталарының алдын ала тізімі, сондай-ақ Роланд де Воның қазбалардан жасаған күнделігі 1994 жылы француз тілінде, 1996 жылы неміс тілінде және 2003 жылы ағылшын тілінде жарияланды. Құмран қола монеталарының толыққанды реконструкциясын, жаңартылған және өзара сілтемеленген монета идентификацияларымен бірге толық монета каталогын Кеннет Лёнквист пен Минна Лёнквист 2005 жылы жасады. 1955 жылы Құмранда үш маңызды күміс монета қоры табылды. Құмран күміс монеталарының бірінші партиясын 1980 жылы Марсия Шарабани жариялады. Ал Иорданияның Амман қаласында табылған соңғы екі қоры 2007 жылы Кеннет Лёнквист жариялады.
Coins from Qumran are one of the most important groups of primary evidence from the ancient site. Much of what has been written on the chronology, the occupational periods and the history of Qumran is based on the preliminary report and lecture by the original excavator, Roland de Vaux in 1961, which was translated in 1973. A tentative list of the Qumran bronze coins along with Roland de Vaux's field diary from the excavations was published in 1994 in French, in German in 1996 and in English in 2003. The first reconstruction of the Qumran bronze coinage, including a complete coin catalogue with up dated and cross referenced coin identifications, was done by Kenneth Lönnqvist and Minna Lönnqvist in 2005. Also in 1955, three very important silver coin hoards were found at Qumran. The first lot of the Qumran silver coins was published by Marcia Sharabani in 1980. The last two hoards located in Amman, Jordan, were published by Kenneth Lönnqvist in 2007.
Қоладан жасалған ақша
Де Воның қазба жұмыстары Құмраннан барлығы 1250-ге жуық монетаны (569 күміс және 681 қола монета) тапты, бірақ бүгінде кейбір Құмран монеталары жоғалып кетті, кейбір топтары шатастырылды, ал жазбалар қажетті дәлдікке жетпейді. Бұл жерде таңғаларлықтай көп монеталар табылды. Бұл Құмран эллиндік және римдік кезеңдерде жоғары деңгейде монетизацияланғанын, яғни Құмран тұрғындары кедей және оқшауланған қоғам емес екенін көрсетеді. Бірінші ғасырдағы Құмранда ақша ағынының көп болуы археологиялық деректермен расталады – осы кезеңге тән шыны сияқты сәнді тауарлардың саудасы осы жерде жүргізілген. Құмран монеталарының сипаттамасы б.з.д. 150 жылдан б.з. 73 жылға дейінгі кезеңде монеталар мен ақшаның экономикалық жүйедегі рөлінде ешқандай үлкен өзгеріс болмағанын көрсетеді. Құмраннан табылған монеталардың саны, ежелгі монеталардың жоғалу және сақталу принциптеріне сәйкес, Құмранда миллиондаған қола монета айналымда болған болуы керек екенін көрсетеді. Құмраннан табылған қола монеталардың кейбіреулері яһуди соғысының екінші және үшінші жылдарына жатады, бұл осы орын 68 жылы да қолданыста болғанын және 70 жылдан кейін, шамамен 73 жылы ғана қиратылғанын көрсетеді. Осы кезеңдегі Құмран монеталары 72/73 жылдары Аскалонда соғылған қола монеталардың ерекше сериясымен аяқталады, Аскалон бірінші еврей-рим соғысында (66-73) рим армиясына көмекші әскерлерді жіберген. 73 жылы римдіктер Өлі теңіздің батыс жағалауында орналасқан Масада тау бекінісін басып алды. Құмран да осы уақытта қиратылған болуы мүмкін, себебі Құмраннан табылған монеталар Аскалонда соғылған дәл сол ерекше қола монеталармен аяқталады.
De Vaux's excavations uncovered about 1250 coins (569 silver and 681 bronze coins) altogether from Qumran, though today some Qumran coins have been lost, some lots mixed up, and records less accurate than ideal. There are a surprisingly high number of coins from the site. This means that the site was highly monetized in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, i. e. that the occupants of Qumran were not a community of poor and isolated people. That the flow of cash at Qumran may have been large in the 1st century CE is hardly surprising given the archaeological evidence of trade at Qumran in luxury goods such as glass, which is specifically dated to this period. The coin profile of Qumran shows that there do not appear to have been any major changes in the role of coins and money in the economic system at Qumran during any of the occupational periods from ca. 150 BCE. to 73 CE. Worth noting here is that the amount of coins found at Qumran suggests according to numismatic principles of loss and survival of ancient coins that millions of bronze coins must have circulated at Qumran. The bronze coins identified from Qumran, some dating to the second and third years of the Jewish War, indicate that the site was still in use in 68 CE and only destroyed after 70, perhaps as late as 73. The coins from Qumran of this period end with a peculiar series of bronze coins minted in 72/73 at Ascalon, which sent auxiliary troops to assist the Roman army in the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73). In 73 the Romans stormed the mountain fortress of Masada, which also was located on the western bank of the Dead Sea. It is more than likely that Qumran was destroyed this same time, as the coin finds from Qumran end with the same peculiar bronze coins minted at Ascalon.
Күміс ақша
2007 жылға дейінгі жариялымдарға сәйкес, Құмрандағы сақталыстардағы ең жаңа күміс монетасы – біздің заманымыздан бұрынғы 9/8 жылға қатысты Тир тетрадрахмасы болып табылады.
According to the publications prior to 2007, the most recent silver coin in the Qumran hoard(s) is a tetradrachm of Tyre from the year 9/8 BCE.
2007 жылғы Лёнквист талдау
К. А. К. Лённквист күміс монеталардың көп бөлігін жариялап, оның аймақтық талдауы 2007 жылы монеталардың маңыздылығы, мерзімі және мәні туралы жаңа түсініктер берді. Лённквисттің сөзіне сүйенсек, күміс монеталар жиынындағы жаңа мерзімделген монеталар монеталар жиынының ең ертегі жерлеу мерзімін б.з. 52/3–66 жылдарына белгілейді, бұл бір белгінің интерпретациясына негізделген. Алайда, күміс монеталар жиынының археологиялық және нумизматикалық сипаты монеталар жиыны 3 ғасырдың басында жерленген болуы мүмкін екенін көрсетеді. Соңғы монета Римде император Каракалланның билігінде, 206–210 жылдар аралығында соғылған. Жаңа ұсыныс бойынша, Құмраннан табылған күміс монеталар жиыны аймақтағы римдік әскери науқандармен байланысты болуы мүмкін, себебі олар б.з. 3 ғасырының басында кеңінен расталған. Сондай-ақ, күміс монеталар жергілікті гарнизондағы әскерлерге римдік армия төлеген ақының бөлігі болуы мүмкін. Лённквисттің айтуынша, 2006–2007 жылдары Құмран күміс монеталары жиынын тіркеу және құжаттаудың техникалық дәлелдері монеталардың бірнеше немесе бір үлкен төлемнен алынған топтарынан, партияларынан шыққандығын көрсетті. Бұл төлем монета соғу орындасынан, банк немесе римдік армия қазынасы сияқты билік органынан келуі мүмкін. Жаңа дәлелдер күміс монеталардың жеке тұлғалардан, мысалы, салық төлеу ретінде жиналған болуы мүмкін деген болжамды жоққа шығарады, немесе Құмран аймақтық «салық үйі» болуы мүмкін. Күміс монеталардың 2007 жылғы жаңа талдауы де Вокс, Сейриг және Спийкерман, сондай-ақ Роберт Донцельдің қорытындыларына қайшы келеді. Донцель Амман мұражайында тіркелмеген монеталарды, әсіресе Траянның динарий монеталарын тапқанда таң қалды, ол олардың кейінірек қосылған екенін мәлімдеді. Амман мұражайының Құмран монеталары жиынының түпнұсқалық жазбалары және монеталар сақталған қаптар римдік монеталардың Тир күмісіне қатысты кейінірек қосылған екенін болжамды қолдамайды. Сонымен қатар, тіркелмеген жаңа белгі 52/53 ж. б.з. кезеңінен екенін көрсетеді және грек әріптері басқа белгілер сияқты б.з.д. 9/8 жылдық мерзімді қолдамайды. Бұл археологиялық және нумизматикалық тұрғыдан кем дегенде бір, ал ықтимал ең болмағанда екі жиынның де Вокс ұсынған б.з.д. 9/8 жылдан кейінгі жерлеу мерзімінен кейінірек мерзімделгенін білдіреді. Құмран күміс жиындарының ерекше және қарқынды байланысы үш жиынның бір уақытта жерленгенін көрсетеді, бұл б.з. 52/53 жылдары болған. Лённквисттің сөзіне сәйкес, 1960 жылдардың басында Иордан аңғарындағы Айн Ханазивтен табылған және Израиль нумизматикалық бюллетенінде жарияланған ерекше монета жиыны, Құмраннан алынған үш күміс монета жиыны үшін үшінші ғасырға қатысты оның теориясын қолдайды. Бұл Айн Ханазив монета жиыны Селевкидтер дәуірінен басталып, Септимий Севердің 210 жылғы билігінен алынған монеталармен аяқталды. Сондықтан, Лённквисттің пікірінше, күміс жиындарының ертерек мерзімде болуын талап ету негізсіз және ол 2007 жылы жасаған Құмран күміс жиындарының алғашқы толық тізіміне қайшы келеді, онда монета жиындарының алғашқы фотосуреттері және басқа жиындардан алынған аймақтық монеталар бар. Де Вокс Құмран және күміс монета жиындарының мерзімін анықтау жүйесінің, әдетте, «айналмалы аргумент» деп аталатын нәрсеге негізделгендігі көрсетілді; бірінші ірі қоныс аудару кезеңінің соңы монета жиындарын жасырудың болжамды мерзімінен кейін, бұл өз кезегінде монета жиындарының өзінен кейін мерзімделді. Дегенмен, Лённквист теориясын Фархи және Прайс сынға алды. Ол «күмбездердің саны мен ғимараттарда орын болатын тұрғындардың саны арасында айқын аралық бар» деп атап өтті. Бұл оны үңгірлердің 200-ге жуық тұрғындардың баспанасы ретінде пайдаланылған деген болжамға итермеледі. Дж. Т. Милик бірнеше жыл бұрын орта есеппен 150–200 адамды есептеген, бұл санды 9 ғасырда 150 монахтан тұратын Мар-Саба монастырының халқымен салыстырып, Иосиф Флавийдің 3000 ессей туралы жазған есебіне сүйеніп, «кем дегенде бес пайызы қатаң монахтық өмір сүрген» деп есептеген. Э. М. Лаперрусаз 1428 тұрғыны бар деп есептеген. Маген Броши L77 (ол жиналыс залы деп атайды) көлемін талдап, онда шамамен 120–150 адам отыра алады деп есептеді, оған ол тұрғындарға бірнеше ондаған үміткерлерді қосты, бұл 170-тен астам адамды құрады. 1983 жылдан 1987 жылға дейін Джозеф Патрич Құмран және оның үңгірлерінің айналасында археологиялық зерттеулер жүргізді. Ол үңгірлердің «қоймалар мен жасырын орындар» екеніне көз жеткізді. Ол тұрақты шатырлы мекендердің іздерін таба алмады және «тұру орындары Құмран қабырғасының ішінде, негізінен жоғарғы қабатта ізделуі керек» деді. Патрич халқының 50–70 адамды құрағанын есептеді. Маген Броши және Ханан Эшель 1995–1996 жылдары үңгірлерді және Құмран төңірегіндегі аумақты қайта қарастырып, Патричтің есебі Құмран ұсына алатын мүмкіндіктерге қарағанда тым жоғары екенін көрсетті, санды 12–20-ға дейін төмендетті. Олар үңгірлерге (негізінен марганец террасасына ойылған жасанды үңгірлердің көп бөлігі сақталмаған) және шатырларға (Құмранның жанындағы жолдың бойында табылған керамика мен шегелерге сілтеме жасай отырып) қайта оралды, және 150–200 тұрғынмен қала берді. Броши мен Эшельдің нәтижелері жарияланғанша күтіп отырып, Патрич оларға күтпегендей жауап берді, марганецке ойылған «қол жетімді көптеген үңгірлер» болды деген мүмкіндікке күмән келтірді, жолдардың және қолайлы жердің жетіспеушілігіне сілтеме жасады. Ол шатырлы тұру үшін шегелердің маңыздылығын «қосымша нақты дәлелдерсіз» есепке алмады және «ең көп 50 тұрғын» деген санды қайтадан еске түсірді. Джоди Магнес Брошидің есебін қабылдап, «Бұл сан, 1000-нан астам тағамдық ыдыстардың қоймада (L86) болуымен төменгі бағалаулармен қарағанда жақсы сәйкес келеді» деп қосты. Басқа ежегіткі қалалардағы халық санының арақатынасын ескере отырып, Йизхар Хиршфельд Құмран халқын былай есептеді: «Егер бір дунамға (1000 м2) он бес адамды ең төменгі көрсеткіш ретінде алсақ, Хасмоней кезеңінде Құмран жерінде шамамен 20 адам тұрған». Йицхак Маген және Юваль Пелег талқыуға қатысып, осы үлкен қауымдастық мүшелерін қалай тамақтандыруға болатыны туралы пікір білдірді: «Егер секта 170 жыл бойы Құмранда тұрған деген талапты қабылдасақ, онда біз жүздеген дастарқандар мен пештерді, сондай-ақ мыңдаған ыдыстарды табуды күтеміз». Халық саны мәселесі жоғарыдағы қарастырулар бойынша көрінетіндей, күрделі мәселе. Құмрандағы екі орынның интерпретациясына – дастарқан мен қоймаға – көп нәрсе байланысты. Құмранның сыртындағы тұру орындарының іздеуі нақты дәлелдерді берген жоқ. Лаперрусаздың күдік тудыратын тым жоғары бағалауын есепке алмағанда, бірқатар ұсыныстар Құмранда және оның төңірегіндегі халық санын 20–200 адам аралығында көрсетеді.
The publication of the bulk of the silver coins by K. A. K. Lönnqvist, and his regional analysis, resulted, in 2007, in a new interpretations as to the importance, chronology and significance of the coins. According to Lönnqvist, the newly dated coins in the silver coin hoards give an earliest possible burial date for the coin hoards to 52/3–66 CE, based on an interpretation of a countermark. However, the archaeological and numismatic nature of the silver coin hoard burials may suggest that the coin hoards may have been buried in the early 3rd century. The final coin was minted in Rome between 206 and 210, during the reign of the emperor Caracalla. The new suggestion made is that the silver coin hoards from Qumran may be connected to Roman military campaigns in the region, as these are widely attested in the early 3rd century CE. It is also quite possible that the silver was part of Roman army payments made to troops in a local garrison. According to Lönnqvist, the technical evidence of the recording and documenting of the Qumran silver coin hoards in 2006–2007 showed that the coins came from lots, groups or batches of coins that originated in a few or one single large payment. This payment may have come from a mint, bank or an authority like the treasury of the Roman army. The new evidence refutes the possibility that the silver coins could have been collected from single individuals, for instance, as tax payments, or that Qumran could have been a regional 'tax house'. The new 2007 analysis of the silver coinage contradicts the findings of de Vaux, Seyrig, and Spijkerman as well as the findings of Robert Donceel. Donceel was surprised to find in the Amman museum unrecorded coins, notably denarius coins of Trajan, that he claimed were intrusive. The original Amman Museum records of the Qumran coin hoards and the museum bags where the coins were kept do not support the hypothesis that the 2nd and 3rd century Roman coins are intrusive in relation to the Tyrian silver. Furthermore, the new countermark that went unrecorded is apparently from 52/53 CE and the Greek letters in it do not support a date of 9/8 BCE, as the other countermarks. This means archaeologically and numismatically that at least one, but probably two minimum, of the three hoards post date de Vaux's suggestion of a burial date after 9/8 BCE. The unusual and intensive die linkage of the Qumran silver hoards suggest that the three hoards were buried at the same time, and this would mean at the earliest in 52/53 CE. According to Lönnqvist, a highly unusual type of coin hoard found at Ain Hanaziv in the Jordan Valley in the early 1960 and reported in the Israel Numismatic Bulletin supports his theory of a third century CE date for the three silver coin hoards from Qumran. This Ain Hanaziv coin hoard spanned hundreds of years, starting from the Seleucid era and ended with the same kind of coins from the reign of Septimius Severus in 210. Therefore, according to Lönnqvist, claiming an earlier date for the silver hoards is untenable and contradicts the first complete recording of the Qumran silver hoards made by him in 2007, which includes the first photographic evidence of the coin hoards, and the regional coin evidence from other hoards. It has already been shown that de Vaux's dating system of Qumran and the silver coin hoards was based on what is generally known as a circular argument; the end of the first major settlement period was dated after the assumed date of hiding of the coin hoards, which in turn dated the coin hoards themselves. Nevertheless, Lönnqvist's theories have been criticized by Farhi and Price. He noted that "[t]here is a manifest disproportion between the number of tombs and the number of inhabitants for whom there was room in the buildings". This led him to speculate whether the caves were used as lodgings for his estimated 200 inhabitants. J. T. Milik some years earlier provided an estimate of between 150 and 200 as the average population, working on the comparison with the population of the monastery of Mar Saba, which numbered 150 monks in the 9th century and from Josephus' figure of 3,000 Essenes calculating that "at least five per cent lived the strict monastic life". E. M. Laperrousaz went as high as 1,428 inhabitants. Magen Broshi, analyzing the size of L77 (which he calls an assembly hall), estimated that about 120 to 150 people could sit there, to which he added a few dozen candidates to the population, yielding over 170 people. From 1983 to 1987 Joseph Patrich carried out archaeological surveys around Qumran and its caves. He concluded that the caves were "stores and hiding places". He found no traces of permanent tent dwellings and that any "dwelling quarters should be sought inside the wall of Khirbet Qumran, mainly on the upper floor". Patrich estimated that the population was only 50–70 people. Magen Broshi and Hanan Eshel, revisiting the caves and the territory around Qumran in 1995–1996, later pointed out that Patrich's estimate was far too high for what Qumran could offer, reducing the number to 12–20. They turned back to caves (mainly artificial ones cut into the marl terrace most of which have not survived) and tents (pointing to pottery and nails found along one of the paths near Qumran), and staying with 150–200 inhabitants. While waiting for the publication of Broshi and Eshel's results, Patrich, anticipating them, doubted the possibility that there were once "significantly more habitable caves" cut into the marl, pointing to the lack of paths and suitable terrain. He went on to discount the significance of the nails for tent dwelling without "further substantial evidence and returned to a figure of "a few tens of residents, fifty at most". Jodi Magness accepted Broshi's estimate, adding "This number accords better than lower estimates with the presence of over 1000 dining dishes in the pantry (L86)." Working from ratios of populations in other ancient settlements, Yizhar Hirschfeld estimated the population of Qumran thus: "If we use the lower value of fifteen people per dunam [1,000 m2], it emerges that in the Hasmonean period only about 20 people occupied the site of Qumran. Yitzhak Magen and Yuval Peleg entered the discussion commenting on how one could feed such large numbers of community members: "Were we to accept the claim that the sect lived at Qumran for about 170 years, we would expect to find hundreds of cooking and baking ovens as well as thousands of cooking pots." The population question is a complex issue, as can be seen by the above considerations. Much hinges on interpretation of two locations at Qumran—the refectory and the pantry. The search for extramural dwelling quarters has failed to provide substantial evidence. Discounting Laperrousaz's apparently excessively high estimate, a number of proposals put the population in and around Qumran at between 20 and 200 people.
Құмран-Эссен гипотезасы
Де Воның Кумранды ессендіктердің қонысы ретінде түсіндіруіне бастапқыда көптеген қарсылықтар туындамады. Археолог Э. М. Лаперрусаздың пікірлері кейбір жағдайларда өзгеше болғанымен, де Воның команда мүшелері, Дж. Т. Милик және Ф. М. Кросс сияқтылар, шамамен бірдей түсіндірмеге, ұсақ өзгешеліктермен, сәйкес болды. Де Воның алғашқы қазба жұмыстарын ұйымдастырушылардың бірі Г. Ланкестер Хардинг 1955 жылы «Жохан Креститель және, мүмкін, Мәсіх оқыған ғимарат: Хирбет Кумран» деген мақала жазды. Де Воның командасынан тыс Анри дель Медико, Соломон Цайтлин және Г. Р. Драйвер сияқты ғалымдар басқаша түсіндірмелер ұсынды, бірақ олардың талдаулары ұзаққа соқпады және көп назар алмады. Соңғы кезде Лоренс Х. Шиффман Құмран құжаттары саддукейлік секталық бағытты көрсетеді деген пікірді қорғады. Дегенмен, көптеген ғалымдар «ессендіктер» термині әртүрлі топтарды қамтыған болуы мүмкін екенін мойындайды, сондықтан саддукейлік секталық гипотеза азшылықты құрайды. Саймон Дж. Джозеф Кумран қауымының Енох дәстүрлерінің ықпалымен Есен қозғалысының бір бөлігі болғанына келіседі, олар эсхатология мен мессиандыққа ерекше назар бөлгенін айтады. 1960 жылы Карл Генрих Ренгсторф Өлі теңіздің шиыршықтары Құмран тұрғындарының туындысы емес, Иерусалим ғибадатханасының кітапханасынан алынған деген тұжырым жасады. (Ренгсторфтың Иерусалимге қатысты негізгі ұсынысы де Воның Кумран қазбаларынан алынған материалдар 1992 жылы көпшілік назарына ұсынылғаннан бері үнемі танымал болып келеді.) Джеймс Х. Чарльзуорт 1980 жылы Құмранның б.з.б. 40 жылғы парфян соғысында зардап шеккенін болжады. Жан Батист Хамберт, де Воның далалық жазбаларын жариялаған, Құмранды қоршаған дауға гибридтік шешім ұсынады. Ол бұл жердің бастапқыда вилла рустика ретінде салынған болуы мүмкін екенін, бірақ кейін тасталып, б.з.б. I ғасырдың соңында ессендіктермен қайта қоныстандырылғанын айтады. Хамберт бұл жердің Иерусалимге кіруге тыйым салынған секталық паломниктердің паломничестволық ортасы ретінде де пайдаланылған болуы мүмкін екенін жобалайды. Мина Лённквист пен Кеннет Лённквист Құмран зерттеулеріне контексттік археологиялық тәсілді енгізді, оның құрамында кеңістіктік зерттеулер және археологиялық деректердің символдық тілінің түсіндірілуі бар. Олар мәтіндік ғалымдардың тек шиыршықтарға назар аударуы Өлі теңіздің шиыршықтарын археологиялық контекстінен шығарып тастағанын айтады. Лённквистер қоныс пен қабірлердің бағыттары күн күнтізбесіне негізделген мақсатты схемаға сәйкес келетінін көрсетті. Осыдан олар қоныс пен зираттың Өлі теңіздің шиыршықтарымен байланысты екенін және ессендіктер тобымен байланысты екенін, олардың Египетте өмір сүрген еврей терапевтік тобымен ең жақын байланысы бар екенін дәлелдеді. Роберт Каргилл Құмранның Хасмонейлік бекініс ретінде құрылған деген теорияның еврей сектанттарының бұл жерді қайта басып алған деген теориямен қарама-қайшы еместігін айтады. Каргилл Құмранның Хасмонейлік бекініс ретінде салынғанын (төменде қараңыз, «Құмран бекініс ретінде»), тасталып, кейіннен еврей қоныстанушыларымен қайта қоныстандырылғанын, олар бұл жерді әскери емес, қоғамдық мақсатта кеңейткенін және Өлі теңіздің шиыршықтарына жауапты болғанын ұсынады. Де Воның тұжырымдарын сынға алғандардың кейбіреуі Құмрандағы археологиялық қалдықтарды түсіндіру үшін Өлі теңіздің шиыршықтарын пайдалануды сынады. Олар бұл қалдықтардың Өлі теңіздің шиыршықтарының ықпалынан тыс, тәуелсіз зерттелуі керек екенін мәлімдеді. Әр түрлі қайта түсіндірулер бұл жер туралы әртүрлі қорытындыларға әкелді. Олардың арасында:
There were not many serious challenges to de Vaux's interpretation of the site of Qumran as a settlement of Essenes from the time it was introduced. While the archaeologist E. M. Laperrousaz, had some quite divergent views, members of de Vaux's team followed approximately the same narrative, with minor deviations, members including J. T. Milik, and F. M. Cross. De Vaux's initial dig co director, G. Lankester Harding, wrote an article in 1955 where he presented Qumran as "a building in which John the Baptist, and probably Christ, studied: Khirbet Qumran". Others outside de Vaux's team proposed other interpretations, people such as Henri del Medico, Solomon Zeitlin, and G. R. Driver, but their analyses received little lasting attention. More recently, Lawrence H. Schiffman has defended the thesis that the Qumran documents indicate a Sadducean sectarian orientation, but while scholars commonly grant that the term "Essenes" probably included a diversity of groups, the sectarian Sadducean hypothesis remains a minority opinion. Simon J. Joseph agrees that the Qumran community was a part of the Essene movement, under the influence of the Enoch traditions, adding that they possessed a stronger focus towards eschatology and messianism. In 1960 Karl Heinrich Rengstorf proposed that the Dead Sea Scrolls were not the product of the residents of Qumran, but came from the library of the Jerusalem Temple, despite their being discovered near Qumran. (Rengstorf's basic Jerusalem proposal has become increasingly more popular since the materials from de Vaux's excavations of Qumran were brought into the public arena in 1992.) James H. Charlesworth in 1980 proposed that Qumran was damaged in the Parthian war c. 40 BCE. Jean Baptiste Humbert, who published de Vaux's field notes, proposes a hybrid solution to the debate surrounding Qumran. He accepts that the site might have been originally established as a villa rustica, but that the site was abandoned and that it was reoccupied by Essenes in the late 1st century BCE. Humbert argues that the site may also have been used a place where sectarian pilgrims—barred from entering Jerusalem—may have celebrated the pilgrimage. Minna Lönnqvist and Kenneth Lönnqvist brought an approach to the Qumran studies based on contextual archaeology with its spatial studies and interpretation of symbolic language of the archaeological data, positing that text scholars, who had only focused their studies on the scrolls, had removed the Dead Sea Scrolls from their archaeological context. The Lönnqvists proposed that the orientations of the settlement and graves show they both belonged to an intentional scheme based on a solar calendar. From this, they argued that the settlement and cemetery are connected to the Dead Sea Scrolls and associated with an Essene type group, which finds the closest parallels in the contemporary Jewish Therapeutic group known to have lived in Egypt. Robert Cargill argues that the theory suggesting Qumran was established as a Hasmonean fortress is not incompatible with the theory proposing that a group of Jewish sectarians reoccupied the site. Cargill suggests that Qumran was established as a Hasmonean fort (see below, "Qumran as fortress"), abandoned, and later reoccupied by Jewish settlers, who expanded the site in a communal, non military fashion, and who were responsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls. Some who challenged de Vaux's findings took issue with the practice of using the Dead Sea Scrolls to interpret the archaeological remains at Qumran. They argued that these remains should be interpreted independently, without any influence from the Dead Sea Scrolls. Various reinterpretations have led to various conclusions about the site. These include:
Қумран бекінісі ретінде
Құмранның бекініс болғаны туралы ескерілмеген ертедегі ұсынысқа Песах Бар Адонның талдауы жаңа өмір сыйлады. Де Вокстің 1a кезеңіндегі табылған жерлерін, Құмраннан оңтүстікке қарай 15 км жердегі Айн-эль-Гхуирдегі және Мазардың 'Эн-Гедидегі 2-ші деңгейіндегі қазбаларын пайдаланып, Бар Адон былай деді: «Бұл қамалдар Иоанн Гирканусқа тиесілі, оған маңызды су көздерін, егістік жерлерін, мал бағын, Иордан өзенінің арқытқыштарын, Иерихон жазығын және Яһуда шөліндегі керуен жолдарын бақылайтын күшті, толыққанды қорғаныс жүйесі қажет болды. Ол Эн-Гедидегідей Құмранның Айн-Фешка оазисін патшалық мүлікке айналдырып, оның шаруаларын өзінің стратегиялық жоспарларына қосты». Норман Голб Құмран елді мекені бекініс ретінде салынған деген пікірді қолдады және сол кездегі басым көзқарастарға қарсы, Құмран сектанттық орын ретінде құрылмаған, тіпті осы жерде сектанттар болған жоқ деп талас етті. Ренгсторф сияқты ол да шиыршықтар Иерусалимде жасалған деп болжады, бірақ Ренгсторфтан өзгеше, Голб шиыршықтар Иерусалимдегі әртүрлі кітапханалардан алынып, саяси көтеріліс кезінде римдіктерден қашқан яһудилермен үңгірлерде жасырылған деді.
The overlooked early suggestion that Qumran was a fortress was given new life by the analysis of Pessach Bar Adon. Using de Vaux's Period 1a findings, his own excavations at Ain el Ghuweir 15 km south of Qumran, and Mazar's level 2 at 'En Gedi, Bar Adon argued, "these fortresses [belonged] to John Hyrcanus, who needed a strong, comprehensive defence system commanding vital water sources, agricultural fields, flocks, Jordan River crossings, the plains of Jericho and the caravan routes in the Judean desert. He turned the Qumran Ain Feshka oasis, like the one at En Gedi, into crown property and incorporated his tenants into his strategic plans." Norman Golb took up the notion that the Qumran settlement was established as a fortress and argued—against the prevailing views of the time—that not only was Qumran not established as a sectarian residence, but that there were no sectarians at the site at all. Like Rengstorf he proposed that the Scrolls had been produced in Jerusalem, but unlike Rengstorf, Golb argues that the scrolls came from different libraries throughout Jerusalem and were hidden in the caves by Jews fleeing the Romans during a political uprising.
Құмран вилла ретінде
Роберт Донцель мен Паулин Донцель Вут өз зерттеулерін де Вокстың Кумраннан табылған, жарияланбаған материалдарының арасындағы ұсақ заттарға, оның ішінде, бірақ олармен шектелмейтін, шыны ыдыстар (55 жаңа тізімделген зат), тас ыдыстар (53 жаңа зат), металл бұйымдар және монеталарға шолу жасады. Құмран тұрғындары кедей монахтар болған деген пікірге қарсы, Донцель мен Донцель Вут олардың шын мәнінде жақын жердегі Иерусалимдегі жоғары топпен байланысы бар бай саудагерлер болғанын ұсынады. Олар Кумранның вилла рустика, яғни бай үй немесе Иерусалимнен келген бай отбасының қысқы немесе жыл бойы тұратын екінші үйі болуы мүмкін екенін айтады. (Донцельдердің баяндамасымен бірдей конференцияда Дж. Магнесс Рокфеллер мұражайындағы қыш ыдыстарды қарап, "жақсы сапалы ыдыстар өте аз болды" деп мәлімдеді. Эрик Майерс одан кейін: "Мен келісемін, менің сапарларым да соны растайды. Профессор Донцель Вутпен келісіп отырмын" деді. Рейчел Бар Натан да: "Ерихонда да сәнді ыдыстардың жетіспеушілігі байқалады, барлық жиынтықта бірнеше ғана боялған сынықтар бар" деп атап өтті.)
Robert Donceel and Pauline Donceel Voûte focused their research on the small finds amongst de Vaux's unpublished materials from Qumran, including, but not limited to, glassware (55 newly catalogued items), stoneware (53 new items), metal wares, and coins. Contrary to the belief that the inhabitants of the site were poor monastics, Donceel and Donceel Voûte suggest that the residents were actually wealthy traders, with connections to the upper class and wealthy in nearby Jerusalem. They ultimately suggest that Qumran was a villa rustica, or wealthy manor house that may have been a winter or year round second home to some wealthy family from Jerusalem. (At the same conference as the Donceel's presentation, J. Magness reported that from what she saw of the pottery in the Rockefeller Museum that "there was very, very little in the way of fine wares". Eric Meyers, next, said "I concur; my visits also corroborate that. I see an affirmative nod from Professor Donceel Voute." Rachel Bar Nathan also notes, "[a]t Jericho, there is also a striking lack of luxury ware, with only a few painted shards in the whole repertoire.")
Құмран сауда орталығы ретінде
Вилла моделі аз қолдау тапса да, оны қарастыруға тырысқан дәлелдер одан әрі түсіндіруге ұмтылыстарға әкелді. Лена Кансдейл мен Алан Краун алғаш рет осы елді мекеннің Өлі теңіз жағалауындағы бекінілген жол станциясы және порт қаласы болғанын, демек, бұл орынның маңызды солтүстік-оңтүстік сауда жолындағы ірі сауда орталығы (немесе "депо") болғанын айтты. Ижар Хиршфельд Құмранның бастапқыда Хасмонейлер бекінісі болғанын қабылдады. Салыстыру үшін ‘Эйн-Фешхадағы жұмысын мысалға келтіре отырып, ол Құмран аймағының соңында Ирод дәуірінде ауыл шаруашылығына негізделген, бекінілген сауда станциясына айналғанын болжады. Ижак Маген мен Юваль Пелег Құмрандағы 10 жылдық қазба жұмыстарын Құмранның кең су жүйесіне арнады. Олар бұл орынның бастапқыда "алдыңғы шептегі бекініс" болғанын мойындайды, бірақ оның қыш ыдыс өндірісі орны ретінде қайта қолданылғанын және су жүйесінің негізінен сазды суды осы аймаққа жеткізу үшін пайдаланылғанын мәлімдейді. Бұл су резервуарларға бағытталды, онда саз түбіне шөгіп қалды. Осы авторлардың пікірінше, нәтижесінде пайда болған шөгінділер қыш ыдыс жасау үшін қолданылған. Осылайша, Ю. Маген мен Ю. Пелег Құмранның қыш ыдыс экспорттау орталығы болғанын ұсынды. Олардың қазбалары 71-ші резервуардың түбінде көп мөлшерде саз табылды, осы фактіні өз аргументтерінің бір бөлігі ретінде пайдаланды.
While the villa model has gained little support, the evidence that it tried to deal with has led to further attempts at explanation. Lena Cansdale and Alan Crown argued for the first time that the settlement was a fortified road station and a port town on the shores of the Dead Sea, meaning that the site was actually a prominent commercial site (or "entrepot") on a major north–south trade route. Yizhar Hirschfeld accepted that Qumran was originally a Hasmonean fortress. Citing his work at ‘Ein Feshkha as a comparison, he suggested that the site at Qumran ultimately became an agriculturally based, fortified trading station during the Herodian era. Yizhak Magen and Yuval Peleg have focused their 10 year excavation at Qumran upon the vast water system at Qumran. They accept that the site was originally a "forward field fort", but argue that the site was repurposed as a pottery production plant, and that the water system was actually used to bring the clay laced water into the site. This water was then directed to the pools, where the clay could fall to the bottom. The resulting sediment was then used for the purpose of pottery production, according to these authors. Thus, Y. Magen and Y. Peleg proposed that Qumran was a pottery export site. Their excavations revealed a large amount of clay at the bottom of pool 71; so this was used as part of their argument.
Керамикалық балшықты талдау
Құмраннан табылған балшықтың үлгілері және әртүрлі керамикалық бұйымдардың құрамы талданды. Бұл зерттеулер Құмран керамикасының көп бөлігі сол жерде жасалмағанын көрсетеді. Құмран керамикасының үштен екісі Құмран балшығынан жасалмаған болып шықты. "Бұл ақпарат Маген Пелег ұсынысына тікелей қайшы келеді", - деді ғалымдар Дж. Гунневег және М. Балла. Дж. Мичневич Балла мен Гунневегтің бұрынғы талдауларына жауап жазып, былай деді: "Балла мен Гунневегтің қорытындылары статистикалық интерпретация үшін қандай элементтер таңдалғаны және бөлуді ерекше күшті анықтағаны туралы мәліметтермен де, анықтамалық деректермен де, статистикалық есептеулермен де расталмайды". 2020 жылы Гунневег Мичневичтің (сондай-ақ Джозеф Йеллиннің) қарсылықтарына жауап берді. Кейбір сыншылардың ескертулерінің дұрыстығын мойындағанмен, ол өзі мен Балланың бірнеше жарияланымда ұсынған негізгі тезисін қорғады. 2000 жылдан бері жүргізілген зерттеулерде Құмраннан табылған керамиканың көп бөлігі басқа жерлерден әкелінген деген жалпы пікір қалыптасқан. "Шеберлер сырттан балшық әкелген болуы мүмкін, бірақ балшықтың бірнеше көзінің болуы (Иерусалим, Иерихон, Моца, Бейт ‘Уммар және басқа да белгісіз жерлер) ыдыстардың көпшілігі жергілікті өндіріс емес екенін көрсетеді". Нейтронмен белсендіру талдауына сүйене отырып, Гунневег пен Балла Құмран керамикасы үшін қолданылған балшықты үш негізгі топқа жіктеді. "I топ" Құмранға тән деп анықталды. Онда осы жерде жасалған керамикалық бұйымдардың көп бөлігі, мысалы, балшық доптары мен пеш қақпақтары сақталған. "II топ" Хеброн аймағымен байланысты, ол Бейт ‘Уммар және Моца балшық кен орындарына жақын. Ал "III топ" Иерихон айналасындағы кен орындарында орналасқан.
Samples of the clay found at Qumran have now been analysed, as well as the composition of various ceramic items. These studies indicate that much of Qumran pottery was not produced at the site. It appears that as much as two thirds of Qumran pottery was not made from Qumran clay. "This information goes straight against" the Magen Peleg proposal, according to scientists J. Gunneweg and M. Balla. J. Michniewicz responding to previous analyses of Balla and Gunneweg, wrote, "Balla and Gunneweg's conclusions are corroborated neither by information about which elements were taken for statistical interpretation and which determined the division particularly strongly nor by the reference data or statistical computation". In 2020, Gunneweg responded to the objections of Michniewicz (as well as those of Joseph Yellin). While admitting the validity of some of critics' objections, he defended the overall thesis as proposed by him and Balla in several publications. There appears to be a broad agreement in the research since 2000 that much of the pottery found in Qumran was brought there from other places. "While it is not impossible that manufacturers brought clay from outside, the existence of multiple sources of clay (Jerusalem, Jericho, Motza, Beit ‘Ummar, and other unidentified sites) implies that many of the vessels were not locally made." Based on Neutron Activation Analysis, Gunneweg and Balla classified the clay used for Qumran pottery in three broad groups. ‘Group I’ was identified as local to Qumran. It contained most of the ceramic items that were certainly made on the site, such as clay balls and oven covers. ‘Group II’ is connected to the areas around Hebron, which is close to the Beit ’Ummar and Motza clay deposits. And ‘Group III’ is localized to the deposits found around Jericho.
Құмран Иордан аңғарының бір бөлігі ретінде
Рейчел Бар Натан Құмранда табылған ыдыс-аяқтардың ешқандай секталық ерекшеліктерін көрсетпейтінін айтады және мұндай керамикалық бұйымдар Масада, Иерихо және аймақтағы басқа да жерлерде әртүрлі көлемде кездесетінін ұсынады. Дэвид Стейси Құмрандағы елді мекенді Иерихондағы меншікпен байланыстырады. Құмранда жыл бойы судың аздығына байланысты, ол бұл орын маусымдық тері өңдеу және керамикалық бұйымдар өндірісімен айналысқан орталық болған деп санайды.
Rachel Bar Nathan rejects the claim that dishware found at Qumran shows any sectarian characteristic, and proposes that such pottery has also been found in varying quantities at Masada, Jericho and other sites in the region. David Stacey argues that the settlement at Qumran is associated with the estate at Jericho. Due to the scarcity of year round water at Qumran, he suggests that the site served as a seasonal tannery and pottery production facility.
Басқа мәселелер
Ира Рабин, Оливер Хан, Тимо Вольф, Адмир Масич және Жизела Вайнберг жариялаған соңғы ғылыми дәлелдер "Шүкіршілік орамасындағы" сияға Өлі теңізден және оның айналасынан су алынғанын көрсетеді, осылайша Өлі теңіз аймағы мен кем дегенде бірнеше орамалардың арасындағы байланысты дәлелдейді. Палеограф Ада Ярдени көптеген үңгірлерден (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 және 11) табылған ондаған қолжазбаларды талдап, тізімдеді, оларды бір жазушыға жатқызып, оны "Қумран жазушысы" деп атады. Ярдени 500-ге дейін жазушы болды деген талаптарға қарсы ескертеді және қолжазбалардың сол кездегі көптеген алыс кітапханалардан алынған әдебиеттің көлденең қимасы екенін, олардың қысқа мерзімде сақталғанын мәлімдейді. Гила Кахила Бар Гал Өлі теңіз орамалары үшін қолданылған кейбір терінің Нубиялық ибекстен алынғанын анықтады, оның таралған аймағына Иерусалим кірмейді, бірақ Хермон тауы мен Голанның жоталары, Негев жоталары және Өлі теңіздің батыс жағалауы кіреді.
Recent scientific evidence published by Ira Rabin, Oliver Hahn, Timo Wolff, Admir Masic, and Gisela Weinberg demonstrates that the ink from The Thanksgiving Scroll uses water taken from the Dead Sea and vicinity thereby demonstrating a link between the Dead Sea region and at least some of the scrolls. Paleographer Ada Yardeni analysed and listed dozens of manuscripts from most of the caves (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, and 11) that she assigns to a single scribe who she refers to as a "Qumran scribe". Yardeni cautions against claims of scribal hands being as many as 500 and claims that the manuscripts are a cross section of then current literature from many distant libraries, deposited in a short time. Gila Kahila Bar Gal determined that some of the skin used for the Dead Sea scrolls came from the Nubian ibex, whose range did not include Jerusalem, but includes Mount Hermon and the Golan Heights, the Negev highlands and the western shore of the Dead Sea.
Археологиялық нысан
1. Құмран шатқалынан шығысқа қарай қарағанда, ағаштардың арасындағы шағын құрылыс – қазіргі Құмран келушілер орталығы. Құмран қираған жерлері оң жақта көрінеді. Елді мекен теңіз жағалауына жақын салынған. Өлі теңіздің көрінісі тұманды. Оң жақта Уди Құмран – жылдың көп бөлігінде құрғақ болатын арна. Бірақ жаңбыр жауса, ол күшті ағысқа айналып, Құмран орналасқан үстірттің бетін тоздырады. Ортадан сол жаққа қарай акведуктың қалдықтары көрінеді. Бұл арна Құмранды құнды сумен қамтамасыз етуге көмектесті. Суреттің ортасындағы үңгірдің соңында 4-ші үңгір орналасқан, ол Өлі теңіз шиыршықтарының көп бөлігін тапқан.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
2. Бұл – Құмран қонысының оңтүстік жағына тікелей орналасқан эспланададан түсірілген Уди Құмранның тағы бір көрінісі. 4-ші үңгір анық көрінеді. Бұл – адамдардың жар бетінен қазып жасаған жасанды үңгір. Үңгірден жүздеген шиыршықтар табылды. Оны 20 ғасырда жергілікті бедуин тауып, ашқан. Үңгірдің артындағы жартастарда Уди Құмранның жоғарғы ағысы көрінеді, ол вадидің түбіне қарай кесіп өтеді.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
3. Келушілер орталығынан жоғары көтерілгенде, мұнараның бұрышына жетесіз. Сол жақта көрініс мұнараның негізін нығайтатын тіректер. Бұл – негізгі ғимараттың солтүстік-батыс бұрышы. Алдымызда – келушілерге су жүйесінің күрделілігін көруге және оны аралап жүруге мүмкіндік беретін заманауи жол. Жолдың оң жағында жаңбыр суын жерге түсіретін акведук орналасқан. Құмран шатқалы орталықта көрінеді.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
4. Бұл сурет жолдан түсірілген. Негізгі ғимараттың оңтүстік жағы сол жақта жоғарыда көрінеді. Негізгі арна елді мекенді аралап өтеді, мұнда ол оңтүстік-шығысқа қарай бұрылады. Бұл дөңгелек цистерна бастапқыда темір дәуірінде салынған, бұл Құмрандағы ең көне құрылыстардың бірі. Сол жақтағы тастан жасалған аркаға назар аударыңыз, ол суды оның артында орналасқан баспалдақпен салынған цистернаға (L117) құяды. Алыстағы көпірде #2 сурет түсірілген.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
5. Мұнарадан батысқа қарай қарағанда, жұмыскерлердің орнатуы көрінеді, ол пештің түбі болуы мүмкін (немесе төменнен қыздырылатын басқа да құрылым). Сол жағындағы жазық жер сол жақта орналасқан баспалдақпен салынған цистернаға (L117) кіретін жерді көрсетеді. (Бұл қадамдар сол жаққа қарай төмендеп бара жатқанда ғана көрінеді.) Негізгі су арнасы жолдан бұрын. Жолдың артында батыс ғимараттың қираған жерлері бар. Алдыңғы жақта жаңбыр суын елді мекенге жеткізген акведук орналасқан.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
6. Мұнарадан оңтүстікке қарай қарағанда, негізгі қоныстың батыс қанатының ішкі қабырғасына қарсы салынған ұзын, тар бөлме көрінеді. Бұл жерде де Во екі сия құмырасын және жазуға арналған үстелдер немесе тақталар ретінде түсіндірген жабын элементтерін тапты. Ең үлкен беті қайта құрылғанда ұзындығы 5 метр, ені 40 сантиметр, биіктігі 50 сантиметр болды. Бұл үстелдер төбе құлаған кезде төбеден құлап түсті. Де Во осы бөлмені «көрме» деп атады және Өлі теңіз шиыршықтары осы жерде жазылған болуы мүмкін деген тұжырымға келді, бірақ барлық ғалымдар осы пікірмен келіспейді. Дегенмен, барлық ғалымдар 30-шы үйдің жоғарғы қабатында жазудың қандай да бір түрі болған деген тұжырымға келеді. Жер қойнауынан және оның айналасынан бірнеше острака, соның ішінде жаттығу әліпбиі табылды.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
7. Шығысқа қарай, Өлі теңізге қарағанда: бұл баспалдақпен салынған бассейн негізгі ғимараттың оңтүстігінде, бірақ негізгі оңтүстік қабырғаның ішінде орналасқан. Бастапқыда ол ішкі қабырғамен екіге бөлінген, батыс жартысы (L56) сайттағы басқа бассейн сияқты болған. Шығыс жағы (L58) қазылып, әлдеқайда терең сақтау цистернасы құрылды. Бастапқы бассейн еңісті орналасуын барынша пайдаланып, сыйымдылығы үшін минималды қазуды қажет етті. Бұл тоған Құмран су жүйесі пайда болғаннан кейін пайда болды. Бұл көтеру суды алысқа жеткізуге мүмкіндік берді және сайтта әлдеқайда үлкен сақтау қабілеті болу мүмкіндігін ашты. Сол жақта негізгі ғимараттың оңтүстік шетін көруге болады. Оның және көлдің қабырғасының арасында суды L48/49 және L71 бассейндеріне тасымалдайтын арна бар.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
8. Оңтүстік-шығысқа қарай қарасаңыз, сол жақтағы қоныстың оңтүстік қабырғасына қарсы салынған ұзын, тар бөлме көрінеді. (Бұл #7 көшеден оңтүстікке қарай орналасқан.) Алыстағы ұшында бір кезде бағаналар болған, бұл де Вокске екінші қабат бар деген ой берді, бірақ мұндай қабаттың іздері табылмады. Де Во бұл бөлмені асхана деп санайды, өйткені оған іргелес бөлмеде, әдетте асхана деп аталатын, мыңнан астам қыш ыдыстар табылды. Де Во бұл ыдыстар қоғамдық тамақтануға қолданылған деп ойлады, бірақ кейбіреулер бұл пікірге қарсы шықты. Шындығында, мұндағы көлемі мен орналасуы оның жанындағы булану цистерналарынан жасалған сазды кептіруге арналған еден болғанын көрсетеді. Оның жазғы күн тоғысымен сәйкес келуі бұл теорияны қолдайды.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
9. #8-дің оң жағында (оңтүстігінде). Бұл орын әдетте «асхана» деп белгілі. Бұл бөлмеде 708 тостаған, 204 табақ, 75 кесе, 37 террин, 21 құмыра, 11 кәде, және басқа да керамикалық заттар де Во табалды, олардың көпшілігі аккуратты түрде жиналған. Де Во бұл ыдыстар L.77-де тамақтануға қолданылған деп сенді, ол «асхана» деп аталды. Бөлменің оңтүстік жағы қабырғамен жабылды. Тітіркенгендік эффектісі ыдыстардың үстіне құлап, оларды қиратқан және оңтүстік қабырғалардың сырттан нығайтылуын көрсетеді. Құмрандағы соңғы кезеңде су арнасы солтүстік қабырғаның оңтүстігінен өтетіндей етіп қайта бағытталды. Содан кейін L.77 сыртқы қабырғасын бақылап, ол үлкен цистернаға (L.71) жеткізілді. Бұл орыннан табылған тағы бір қызықты нәрсе – «Елеазар» есімі жазылған тостаған. Екі тіреудің қалдықтарына назар аударыңыз. Олардың мақсаты белгісіз, бірақ олар жүктеме көтеруге арналмаған сияқты.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
10. Құмрандағы ең қызықты жаңалықтардың бірі – негізгі ғимараттың шығыс жағында осы баспалдақпен салынған цистернаны табу болды, баспалдақтарда жердің құлауын көрсететін жарық бар, бұл жер сілкінісінен болған болуы мүмкін. Оңтүстікке қарай арна Құмранның ең үлкен цистернасын толтырды, ол да сол уақытта сол себептен бұзылған. Бұл цистерна сайттың соңғы кезеңінде қолданылғандықтан, біз осы цистерна да сол кезде зардап шеккенін болжауымызға болады. Сондай-ақ, баспалдақтардағы бөлгіштерге назар аударыңыз. Кейбір ғалымдар бұл бөлгіштер кіретін және шығатын адамдарды бөлуге арналған, Иерусалемге жақын жерде табылған микваоттарға (қасиетті еврейлердің шомылу орындары) ұқсас екенін болжады, бірақ барлық ғалымдар осы пікірмен келіспейді. (Құмран су жүйесін ең толық талдаған Катарине Галор: «[п]рактикалық тұрғыдан алғанда, төменгі бөлгіштерді символдық кеңістік бөлігіш ретінде пайдаланудың мәні жоқ» деді.) Бөлгіштер бассейне суды бағыттауға көмектесуі мүмкін.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
11. Оңтүстікке қарасаңыз, қоныстың оңтүстік-шығыс бұрышына қазылған ұзын, тар бассейн көрінеді. Бұл Құмрандағы су жүйесіндегі соңғы және ең үлкен бассейн. Бұл алып құрылым 300 текше метр суды сыйымды ете алады, бұл басқа барлық баспалдақпен салынған бассейннің сыйымдылығынан артық. III кезеңде (яғни, еврей соғысынан кейін) бұрынғы зардапты жою және осы бассейнды толтыруды жалғастыру үшін су арнасы жартылай қайта бағытталды. Ғалымдар бұл миква (қасиетті еврейлердің шомылу орны), цистерна немесе саз жинау ыдысы ма екені туралы пікірталас жүргізеді.
1. Looking east from the Qumran gorge, the small structure on the upper left amid the trees contains the modern Qumran visitor's center. The ruins of Qumran can be seen immediately to the right. The settlement was built close to the seaward side of a plateau. The Dead Sea forms a hazy backdrop. To the extreme right is the Wadi Qumran, a torrent that is dry most of the year. On the few occasions when it rains, though, it becomes a raging torrent that has eroded the side of the plateau where Qumran is. From the mid left the remains of an aqueduct run down to the settlement. This channel helped furnish Qumran with a valuable supply of water. At the end of the outcrop in the center of the picture is Cave 4, which supplied the vast bulk of the Dead Sea Scrolls.2. This is another view of Wadi Qumran taken from the esplanade abutting the southern side of the Qumran settlement. Cave 4 can clearly be seen. It is an artificial cave cut into the cliff face by humans. Several hundred scrolls were found in the cave. It was found and opened up in the 20th century by a local Bedouin who had been searching for scrolls. Behind the cave on the cliffs the upper course of Wadi Qumran can be seen as it cuts its way down toward the wadi floor.3. Coming up from the visitor's center one comes to the corner of the tower. What we see to the left is mainly the buttressing for the tower. This marks the north western corner of the main building. Ahead, is a modern walkway that lets visitors to walk through the site and see some of the complexities of the water system. Behind the walkway on the right is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down into the site. The Qumran gorge is in the central distance.4. This photo was taken from the walkway. The southern end of the main building can be seen at the top left. The main channel snakes its way through the settlement—here around the round cistern before bending south eastwards. This round cistern was originally constructed during the Iron Age, making it one of the oldest structures at Qumran. Note also the arch cut into the stone on the central left: this fed water down into a stepped cistern (L117) behind it. The canopy in the distance is where photo #2 was taken.5. Looking down from the tower westward is a worker's installation that may have been the bottom of a kiln (or some other structure that was heated from beneath). To its left, a flat area marks the entry point for a stepped cistern (L117), which is farther left. (The steps can just be made out as they descend leftwards.) The main water channel is before the walkway. Behind the walkway are ruins of the western building. Farther behind is the aqueduct that brought rainwater down to the settlement.6. Looking from the tower southward one sees a long narrow room built against the inner wall of the western wing of the main settlement. Here, de Vaux discovered two inkwells and plastered elements he interpreted as benches or tables for writing. The largest surface, upon being reconstructed, measured 5 meters in length, 40 centimeters in breadth and only 50 centimeters in height. These benches (or tables) had fallen through the floor above when the ceiling collapsed. De Vaux referred to this room above as the "scriptorium" and concluded the Dead Sea Scrolls could have been written here, but not all scholars agree with this interpretation. Nearly all scholars, however, conclude that some form of writing took place here on the upper floor of Locus 30. Several ostraca, including a practice alphabet, have been found in and around the site.7. Looking east toward the Dead Sea: this stepped pool is located immediately south of the main building but within the main southern wall. It was originally one long pool before an internal wall separated it into two, making the western half (L56) like most other stepped pools on the site. The eastern side (L58) was excavated and a much deeper storage cistern was created. The original pool took fullest advantage of the sloping location, requiring only minimal excavating for the capacity. This pool came into existence some time after the Qumran water system was raised. This raising let water be carried farther, and opened up the possibility for a much bigger storage capacity on the site. The southern end of the main building can be seen to the left. Between it and the wall of the pool, is a channel that carried water to farther stepped pools, L48/49 and L71.8. Looking south east one sees a long narrow room built against the main southern wall of the settlement on the left. (This location is south of #7.) The far end once featured pillars, which gave de Vaux the idea there was a second storey—though no traces were found of such a storey. De Vaux considered this room a refectory, because an adjacent room, commonly referred to as a pantry, contained over a thousand pieces of pottery. This pottery was thought by de Vaux to have been used for communal meals, though some have challenged this interpretation. In fact, the size and layout strongly suggest this was some kind of drying floor for the production of clay from the adjoining evaporation cisterns. That it lines up with the summer solstice supports this theory.9. To the right (south) of #8. This location is commonly known as the "pantry". At the southern end of this room 708 bowls, 204 plates, 75 goblets, 37 terrines, 21 jars, 11 jugs, and other ceramic items were found by de Vaux, mostly neatly stacked. De Vaux believed that this crockery was used for meals in L.77, which he referred to as the "refectory". The southern end of the room had been walled off. The effects of an earthquake may be indicated by the fact that this wall later collapsed over the pottery, crushing it, and that the southern walls had to be strengthened externally. During the last period at Qumran, a water channel was rerouted to pass immediately south of the northern wall. Then, following the outer wall of L.77, it eventually supplied the large cistern (L.71). Another interesting find from the location was a bowl inscribed with the name "Eleazar". Note the remains of two pilasters. Their purpose is unknown, but they do not seem to have been load bearing.10. One of the most interesting discoveries at Qumran was the unearthing on the eastern side of the main building of this stepped cistern featuring a crack down the steps marking where the land dropped, apparently due to an earthquake. A channel farther to the south fed the largest of the Qumran cisterns, which was broken at the same time by the same means. As that cistern was used in a late phase of the site, we can surmise that the cistern we see was also damaged then. Also of interest are the dividers that run down the steps. Some scholars have suggested that these served as partitions separating those entering the pool from those exiting, similar to miqva'ot (Jewish ritual baths) found near Jerusalem, but not all scholars accept this interpretation. (Katharina Galor, who carried out the most complete analysis thus far of the Qumran water system, commented, "[f]rom a practical point of view, the interpretation of using the low divisions as a symbolic space divider does not make any sense".) The partitions may have served to aid in channeling water into the pool.11. Looking south one sees a long narrow pool dug into the southeast corner of the settlement. This is the last and largest pool in the water system at Qumran. This enormous structure could hold 300 cubic meters of water, more than all the other stepped pools combined. During Period III, (i. e., after the Jewish War), a water channel was partially rerouted to remedy prior destruction and continue to fill this pool. Scholars debate whether it was a miqvah (Jewish ritual bath), a cistern, or a clay collection vat.
Сын
Кейбір жазушылар Израильдің Кумран үңгірлерін "ерекше израильдік-яһуди мұрасы" орны ретінде орнату үшін аймаққа көп инвестиция салғанын айтады.
Some writers have claimed that Israel has invested heavily in the area to establish the Qumran caves as a site of "uniquely Israeli Jewish heritage".
Құмран туралы ғылыми мақалалар
Құмрандағы қамал: Түсіндіру тарихы Роберт Каргилл (2009). Құмран туралы үш ескерту Дэвид Стейси (2009). Құмранның сыры Ярон Бен Ами (2004). Маген мен Пелегтің жұмысын талдау. Жақында жарияланған материалдар негізінде Құмранның археологиялық контексіне қатысты бірнеше ескерту Дэвид Стейси (2001). Өлі теңіздегі Хирбет-Кумран қираған жерлеріне кеңістіктік тәсіл) Лённквист, К. & Лённквист, М. (2004) Хелсинки университеті, Финляндия, Археология кафедрасы, Мәдени зерттеулер институты.
The Fortress at Qumran: A History of Interpretation Robert Cargill (2009). Three Notes on Qumran David Stacey (2009). The Enigma of Qumran Yaron Ben Ami (2004). An analysis of the work of Magen and Peleg. Some Notes on the Archaeological Context of Qumran in the light of recent publications David Stacey (2001). Spatial Approach to the Ruins of Khirbet Qumran at the Dead Sea) Lönnqvist, K. & Lönnqvist, M. (2004) Institute for Cultural Research, Dept of Archaeology, University of Helsinki, Finland.