Введение
Построение топологических пространств: факторпространства в линейной алгебре
quotient spaces in linear algebra
В топологии и смежных областях математики факторпространством топологического пространства по заданному отношению эквивалентности является новое топологическое пространство, построенное путем наделения фактормножества исходного топологического пространства фактортопологией, то есть наиболее тонкой топологией, делающей непрерывным каноническое проекционное отображение (функцию, отображающую точки в их классы эквивалентности). Иными словами, подмножество факторпространства открыто тогда и только тогда, когда его прообраз при каноническом проекционном отображении открыт в исходном топологическом пространстве. Интуитивно, точки каждого класса эквивалентности отождествляются или "склеиваются" для формирования нового топологического пространства. Например, отождествление точек сферы, принадлежащих одному и тому же диаметру, приводит к образованию проективной плоскости как факторпространства.
Сопутствующие определения
Наследственно-квотиентное отображение — это сюръективное отображение, обладающее свойством, что для любого подмножества ограничение также является квотиентным отображением. Существуют квотиентные отображения, которые не являются наследственно-квотиентными.
Примеры
Приклеивание. Топологи говорят о склеивании точек. Если – топологическое пространство, то приклеивание точек и в означает рассмотрение фактор-пространства, полученного из отношения эквивалентности если и только если или (или ). Рассмотрим единичный квадрат и отношение эквивалентности ~, порожденное требованием, чтобы все граничные точки были эквивалентны, тем самым отождествляя все граничные точки с одним классом эквивалентности. Тогда гомеоморфно сфере .
Adjunction space. More generally, suppose is a space and is a subspace of One can identify all points in to a single equivalence class and leave points outside of equivalent only to themselves. The resulting quotient space is denoted The 2 sphere is then homeomorphic to a closed disc with its boundary identified to a single point:
Consider the set of real numbers with the ordinary topology, and write if and only if is an integer. Then the quotient space is homeomorphic to the unit circle via the homeomorphism which sends the equivalence class of to
A generalization of the previous example is the following: Suppose a topological group acts continuously on a space One can form an equivalence relation on by saying points are equivalent if and only if they lie in the same orbit. The quotient space under this relation is called the orbit space, denoted In the previous example acts on by translation. The orbit space is homeomorphic to
Note: The notation is somewhat ambiguous. If is understood to be a group acting on via addition, then the quotient is the circle. However, if is thought of as a topological subspace of (that is identified as a single point) then the quotient (which is identifiable with the set ) is a countably infinite bouquet of circles joined at a single point
This next example shows that it is in general not true that if is a quotient map then every convergent sequence (respectively, every convergent net) in has a lift (by ) to a convergent sequence (or convergent net) in Let and Let and let be the quotient map so that and for every The map defined by is well defined (because ) and a homeomorphism. Let and let be any sequences (or more generally, any nets) valued in such that in Then the sequence converges to in but there does not exist any convergent lift of this sequence by the quotient map (that is, there is no sequence in that both converges to some and satisfies for every ). This counterexample can be generalized to nets by letting be any directed set, and making into a net by declaring that for any holds if and only if both (1) and (2) if then the indexed net defined by letting equal and equal to has no lift (by ) to a convergent indexed net in
Пространство присоединения. В более общем случае, пусть – пространство и – подпространство . Можно отождествить все точки в с одним классом эквивалентности и оставить точки вне эквивалентными только самим себе. Полученное фактор-пространство обозначается . Сфера 2 тогда гомеоморфна замкнутому диску с его границей, отождествленной в одну точку:
Рассмотрим множество действительных чисел с обычной топологией и запишем если и только если – целое число. Тогда фактор-пространство гомеоморфно единичной окружности через гомеоморфизм, который отображает класс эквивалентности в .
Adjunction space. More generally, suppose is a space and is a subspace of One can identify all points in to a single equivalence class and leave points outside of equivalent only to themselves. The resulting quotient space is denoted The 2 sphere is then homeomorphic to a closed disc with its boundary identified to a single point:
Consider the set of real numbers with the ordinary topology, and write if and only if is an integer. Then the quotient space is homeomorphic to the unit circle via the homeomorphism which sends the equivalence class of to
A generalization of the previous example is the following: Suppose a topological group acts continuously on a space One can form an equivalence relation on by saying points are equivalent if and only if they lie in the same orbit. The quotient space under this relation is called the orbit space, denoted In the previous example acts on by translation. The orbit space is homeomorphic to
Note: The notation is somewhat ambiguous. If is understood to be a group acting on via addition, then the quotient is the circle. However, if is thought of as a topological subspace of (that is identified as a single point) then the quotient (which is identifiable with the set ) is a countably infinite bouquet of circles joined at a single point
This next example shows that it is in general not true that if is a quotient map then every convergent sequence (respectively, every convergent net) in has a lift (by ) to a convergent sequence (or convergent net) in Let and Let and let be the quotient map so that and for every The map defined by is well defined (because ) and a homeomorphism. Let and let be any sequences (or more generally, any nets) valued in such that in Then the sequence converges to in but there does not exist any convergent lift of this sequence by the quotient map (that is, there is no sequence in that both converges to some and satisfies for every ). This counterexample can be generalized to nets by letting be any directed set, and making into a net by declaring that for any holds if and only if both (1) and (2) if then the indexed net defined by letting equal and equal to has no lift (by ) to a convergent indexed net in
Обобщение предыдущего примера следующее: пусть топологическая группа непрерывно действует на пространство . Можно сформировать отношение эквивалентности на , говоря, что точки эквивалентны, если и только если они лежат на одной орбите. Фактор-пространство относительно этого отношения называется орбитальным пространством и обозначается . В предыдущем примере действует на путем сдвига. Орбитальное пространство гомеоморфно .
Adjunction space. More generally, suppose is a space and is a subspace of One can identify all points in to a single equivalence class and leave points outside of equivalent only to themselves. The resulting quotient space is denoted The 2 sphere is then homeomorphic to a closed disc with its boundary identified to a single point:
Consider the set of real numbers with the ordinary topology, and write if and only if is an integer. Then the quotient space is homeomorphic to the unit circle via the homeomorphism which sends the equivalence class of to
A generalization of the previous example is the following: Suppose a topological group acts continuously on a space One can form an equivalence relation on by saying points are equivalent if and only if they lie in the same orbit. The quotient space under this relation is called the orbit space, denoted In the previous example acts on by translation. The orbit space is homeomorphic to
Note: The notation is somewhat ambiguous. If is understood to be a group acting on via addition, then the quotient is the circle. However, if is thought of as a topological subspace of (that is identified as a single point) then the quotient (which is identifiable with the set ) is a countably infinite bouquet of circles joined at a single point
This next example shows that it is in general not true that if is a quotient map then every convergent sequence (respectively, every convergent net) in has a lift (by ) to a convergent sequence (or convergent net) in Let and Let and let be the quotient map so that and for every The map defined by is well defined (because ) and a homeomorphism. Let and let be any sequences (or more generally, any nets) valued in such that in Then the sequence converges to in but there does not exist any convergent lift of this sequence by the quotient map (that is, there is no sequence in that both converges to some and satisfies for every ). This counterexample can be generalized to nets by letting be any directed set, and making into a net by declaring that for any holds if and only if both (1) and (2) if then the indexed net defined by letting equal and equal to has no lift (by ) to a convergent indexed net in
Примечание: Обозначение несколько неоднозначно. Если понимается как группа, действующая на путем сложения, то фактор-пространство – это окружность. Однако, если рассматривается как топологическое подпространство (которое отождествляется с одной точкой), то фактор-пространство (которое можно отождествить с множеством ) является счетно бесконечным букетом окружностей, соединенных в одной точке.
Adjunction space. More generally, suppose is a space and is a subspace of One can identify all points in to a single equivalence class and leave points outside of equivalent only to themselves. The resulting quotient space is denoted The 2 sphere is then homeomorphic to a closed disc with its boundary identified to a single point:
Consider the set of real numbers with the ordinary topology, and write if and only if is an integer. Then the quotient space is homeomorphic to the unit circle via the homeomorphism which sends the equivalence class of to
A generalization of the previous example is the following: Suppose a topological group acts continuously on a space One can form an equivalence relation on by saying points are equivalent if and only if they lie in the same orbit. The quotient space under this relation is called the orbit space, denoted In the previous example acts on by translation. The orbit space is homeomorphic to
Note: The notation is somewhat ambiguous. If is understood to be a group acting on via addition, then the quotient is the circle. However, if is thought of as a topological subspace of (that is identified as a single point) then the quotient (which is identifiable with the set ) is a countably infinite bouquet of circles joined at a single point
This next example shows that it is in general not true that if is a quotient map then every convergent sequence (respectively, every convergent net) in has a lift (by ) to a convergent sequence (or convergent net) in Let and Let and let be the quotient map so that and for every The map defined by is well defined (because ) and a homeomorphism. Let and let be any sequences (or more generally, any nets) valued in such that in Then the sequence converges to in but there does not exist any convergent lift of this sequence by the quotient map (that is, there is no sequence in that both converges to some and satisfies for every ). This counterexample can be generalized to nets by letting be any directed set, and making into a net by declaring that for any holds if and only if both (1) and (2) if then the indexed net defined by letting equal and equal to has no lift (by ) to a convergent indexed net in
Следующий пример показывает, что в общем случае неверно, что если – факторное отображение, то любая сходящаяся последовательность (соответственно, любая сходящаяся сеть) в имеет прообраз (посредством ) в виде сходящейся последовательности (или сходящейся сети) в . Пусть и . Пусть – факторное отображение , так что и для любого . Отображение , определенное как , хорошо определено (потому что ) и является гомеоморфизмом. Пусть и – любые последовательности (или, в более общем случае, любые сети), принимающие значения в , такие что в . Тогда последовательность сходится к в , но не существует сходящегося прообраза этой последовательности посредством факторного отображения (то есть, нет последовательности в , которая одновременно сходится к некоторому и удовлетворяет для всех ). Этот контрпример можно обобщить на сети, допустив любое направленное множество и превратив его в сеть, объявив, что для любого выполняется, если и только если оба условия (1) и (2) если , то индексированная сеть, определенная как и , не имеет прообраза (посредством ) в виде сходящейся индексированной сети в .
Adjunction space. More generally, suppose is a space and is a subspace of One can identify all points in to a single equivalence class and leave points outside of equivalent only to themselves. The resulting quotient space is denoted The 2 sphere is then homeomorphic to a closed disc with its boundary identified to a single point:
Consider the set of real numbers with the ordinary topology, and write if and only if is an integer. Then the quotient space is homeomorphic to the unit circle via the homeomorphism which sends the equivalence class of to
A generalization of the previous example is the following: Suppose a topological group acts continuously on a space One can form an equivalence relation on by saying points are equivalent if and only if they lie in the same orbit. The quotient space under this relation is called the orbit space, denoted In the previous example acts on by translation. The orbit space is homeomorphic to
Note: The notation is somewhat ambiguous. If is understood to be a group acting on via addition, then the quotient is the circle. However, if is thought of as a topological subspace of (that is identified as a single point) then the quotient (which is identifiable with the set ) is a countably infinite bouquet of circles joined at a single point
This next example shows that it is in general not true that if is a quotient map then every convergent sequence (respectively, every convergent net) in has a lift (by ) to a convergent sequence (or convergent net) in Let and Let and let be the quotient map so that and for every The map defined by is well defined (because ) and a homeomorphism. Let and let be any sequences (or more generally, any nets) valued in such that in Then the sequence converges to in but there does not exist any convergent lift of this sequence by the quotient map (that is, there is no sequence in that both converges to some and satisfies for every ). This counterexample can be generalized to nets by letting be any directed set, and making into a net by declaring that for any holds if and only if both (1) and (2) if then the indexed net defined by letting equal and equal to has no lift (by ) to a convergent indexed net in